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L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

I N

TWELVE BOOKS:

AND HIS

BOOK

f /

CONCERNING

T R EES.

Tranilated into Englifh , with feveral Illu fixations from
Pliny, Cato, Varro, Palladius, and other
antient and modern AUTHORS.

- - - - — vw

Ecclefiaftes, Chap. V. Ver. g. The Profit of the Earth is for All ; the hting himfelf is
ferved by the Field.

Ecclefiafticus, Chap. VII. Ver. 15. Hate not Husbandry , which the Mof High hath
ordained.

Virg. Georg. Lib. I. ■ ■■ Pater ipfe colend't

Hand facilem ejfe via?n voluit, primufque per artem
Movit agros, curis acuens mortalia corda.

LONDON:

Printed for A. Millar, oppofite to Catharine-ftreet in the Strand

M.DCC.XL V.

THE

PREFACE-

f—lg—iHE Art of Hufbandry is fo necefiary for the fupport of human
life, and the comfortable fubfiftence and happinefs of man¬
kind have fo great a dependence upon it, that the wifeft Men.
in all ages have afcribed its original to God, as the Inventor
and Ordainer of it : and the wifeft and moft civilized Nations, who
have beft underftood their true intereft, have always endeavoured to
promote and improve it ; and have never failed to acknowledge, and
honour, as public Benefadtors, all fuch as contributed any thing to¬
wards the fame. In antient times, nothing was more honourable
than Pafturage and Tillage ; for even Princes themfelves did not then
think them unworthy of their ftudy and application.

Without entering into any detail of the gradual progrefs this
Art feems to have made in the different ages of the world, it may
be fufficient to obferve, that, in proportion as either private Families,
or Nations of Men, fixed themfelves in fettled habitations, and applied
themfelves to this neceffary Art, they accordingly profpered, and in-
creafed in number and power ; and that fuch as applied themfelves
the moft affiduouily to all the different branches thereof, always made
the greateft figure in the world.

The Greeks applied themfelves very early to this ftudy, and feem
to have been great Proficients in it; to which, no doubt, the precepts
of their wifeft Men, who delighted therein, contributed very much.
Ilejiod , the moft antient of their Poets, who lived above two centuries
before the foundation of Rome , inftrudfed not only the Men of his
own times, but alfo fucceeding generations; and many of his precepts
of Hufbandry have been preferved to this very day. Many other

A 2 learned

IV

The PREFACE.

learned Men alfo amongft them improved the knowledge and repu¬
tation of this Art to fuch a degree, that it was very early efleemed a
moft honourable employment, even not below Royal Majefly itfelf.
Thus we fee, that Homer , that Prince of Poets, who knew the dig¬
nity, decency, importance, and value of things more than any Man,
in his beautiful defcription of Achilles s Ihield, contrived and curioufly
wrought by Vulcan himfelf, reprefents the King {landing in a furrow,
with his royal fceptre in his hand, over-feeing the Reapers cutting down
the ripe corns, and greatly rejoicing in the fruit of his labours, and his
fervants preparing a dinner for them under an oak. And, no doubt,
in after-times, that Art was brought by them to much greater per¬
fection ; for that inquifitive people borrowed knowledge of all their
neighbours, and their wifefl Men travelled in queft thereof, into all
thole countries where they had any expectation to find it.

The Greeks , by their intercourfe and communication with Italy,
tranfmitted their knowledge and improvements into fome parts of that
delightful country : neverthelefs it is very probable, that, for feveral
centuries after the foundation of Rome , this Art made but very little
progrefs among the Romans ; nor were they much acquainted with
that regular Culture praCtifed in Greece , Afia , and other Eallern coun¬
tries ; but, in procefs of time, as they extended their dominions, and
became acquainted with the neighbouring nations, their knowledge in
this Art increafed ; and that wile and difeerning people difcovered the
great and manifold advantages of Agriculture ; its natural tendency,
not only to fecure againft the calamities of famine, to which they had
fometimes been expofed, but to prevent diftempers, increafe the number
of their people, harden their bodies, and make them more robuft, and
able to endure the fatigues of a military life, when the fervice and
interefl of their country fhould require it ; fo that their greateil Men,
their Generals, Senators, and graved: Philofophers, did all they could
to encourage and promote it, not only by precept, but by their own
example: and though, during the hurry and confufions of war, it
met with great interruption, and advanced but (lowly, and they could
not carry it to that degree of perfection they defined ; yet we fee,
that, in the midft of their triumphs, after they had fubdued a rival
Republic, they feem to have ferioufly confidered the neceflity of pro¬
moting it more effectually: And their Senate, that augull afiembly of
difinterefled Patriots, always intent upon promoting the public good,
and far from thinking that they wanted no further inftruCtion, ordered
the twenty-eight books of Mago , a Carthaginian General, which he

had

V

The P R E F A C E.

had written upon this fubjeCt, to be tranflated into Latin j and, in
this work, fome Men of the greated quality had a principal hand.
And by this decree it appears, that the Romans were fenfible, that, in
point of Hufbandry, the Carthaginians had greatly the advantage of
them ; which both Varro and Columella feem alfo to acknowledge,
by calling Mago the Parent of Hufbandry.

The Romans , by extending their empire over all Greece and Afia,
and opening a free communication with all thofe countries where Huf¬
bandry feems fird to have flourifhed, made great improvements in this
Art, and carried it to great perfection ; and, as they extended their
conquefts northward and weftward, they carried it along with them ;
and, at length, introduced it into this iiland, where, at their fird
arrival, they, no doubt, found it but very rude and imperfect.

What contributed mod: to the propagation of this ufeful Art, was
the great number of books, both in Greek and Latin , written upon
this fubjeCt by Authors not only eminent for learning, but of exalted
dation and quality ; fome of which have been preferved to this day :
and, as none of them have treated of it l'o copioully, in all its differ¬
ent branches, as Columella , who feems to have made it the ftudy and
the bufinefs of his whole life, and to have perufed all the Authors that
went before him, there is reafon to think, that a tranflation of this
polite Author into Englifj will be looked upon rather as a work of
fome ufe and advantage, than of mere curiofity and amufement ;
efpecially if it be confidered, that he has given us not only a com¬
plete fyilem of the Roman Hufbandry, but alfo a didinCt account
of the private ceconomy qf that wife and prudent people ; for, by
the many wife precepts and directions he gives, relating to this lad,
we may eafily obferve, what was their method in the management
and government of their Families ; which, if carefully imitated,
as far as different circumdances will allow, might, even at this prefent
time, contribute greatly to the intered and regular government of the
greated Families. Or even fuppofe no further advantage were to be
expeCfed from fuch a performance, but the gratification of our curio¬
fity, which certainly is not the cafe 5 yet, even in this light, it is
hoped, it will not be unacceptable to fuch as are not well acquainted
with the original, and cannot otherwife have the fatisfaCfion they may
innocently defire ; for, in matters of far lei's importance than mod of
the things here treated of, the polited Nations in Europe have always
received kindly every attempt to make them acquainted with what¬
ever had any relation to that great people j efpecially this Nation, in

which

vi The PREFACE.

which has been To long preferved that noble, generous, free, inde¬
pendent, and public fpirit, which was once the glory of that Re¬
public, before luxury, covetoufnefs, and ambition, had corrupted
Mens hearts.

In Italy, France, and Germany , attempts have been made to tranf-
late this celebrated Author into their refpedtive languages) whether
any fuch attempt has been made in this kingdom, I know not : fome
bits and feraps, here-and-there, I have indeed feen in Englijh ; how
much mangled, mifreprefented, and mifunderftood, in many in fiances,
is obvious enough to fuch as are judges, and will be at the pains to
confider them. To vindicate fo polite an Author from any injuflice
of this nature, to perpetuate his memory, and make him more known
and ufeful to the world, are motives fufficient enough to juflify an
attempt to give a full and juft Tranflation. Whether thefe, or any other -
motives, have determined me to undertake this work, I believe nobody
will think it worth their while to inquire. If I fhould fay, it was a
defire to profit and pleafe the public, it would be received with
deferved contempt, as the common pretence of the moft frivolous un¬
dertakings : tho’, perhaps, good-nature may be apt to think, that
my not having levied contributions by fubferiptions, but printed it at
my own expence, is a ftrong prefumption of the truth of fuch an
after tion. What moft concerns the Purchafer or Reader, if any
vouchfafe to be fuch, is to know, whether the work be tolerably
well done : this is humbly fubmitted to the judgment of fuch as un¬
derhand the original : overfights, and miftakes in fmall matters,
notwith (landing all the care taken to avoid them, probably there are
many ; but as to capital errors, in perverting the fenfe of the Author,
in things eftential, and of greater importance, it is hoped there are
few. I have endeavoured to give his meaning in as plain and intel¬
ligible words as I could, without adding or diminifhing j and have
been fcrupuloufly careful only to tranfiate, and not to make a com¬
mentary, fo that to fome, it is probable, the Tranflation may appear
rather to be too literal. I have been obliged to retain many original
words, which cannot be rendered without a long circumlocution,
there being no words in our language exactly anfwering to them ;
and, as thefe words often recur, the fame circumlocutions would have
been a blemifh in the Tranflation : I therefore thought it better to give
an explication of them apart by themfelves, to which the Reader may
have recourfe, till they become familiar to him. Thus, for inftance,
jugerum was a common meafure of land amongft the Romans , as an

Acre

The PREFACE. vii

Acre is amongft us ; but if it were tranflated by Acre^ as is commonly
done, it would give the Reader a falfe notion of the thing, becaufe
the Englifh Acre is above one third larger than the Roman jiigerwn.
Thus all their meafures of capacity, both liquid and dry, as culeus ,
amphora , urna, modius , congius , fextarius , hemina , cyathus , ligala , &c.
cannot be rendered by any names of meafures in common ufe amongfi:
us ; for none of them, from the greateft to the fmalleft, do exadfly
correfpond : therefore it was neceflary to retain them, and the Reader
may eafily fatisfy himfelf, by turning to the fhort account I have given
of them.

As the whole of this Tranflation flands in need of indulgence, fo
no part of it ought more humbly to deprecate the feverity of the
Critic,, than that of the citations from Virgil , and of the Tenth
Book, which is all in Hexameter verfe. It would not have given
any great fatisfadl ion to have tranflated them intoprofe: therefore, that
the whole might bear fome refemblance to the original, I have endea¬
voured to render them into blank verfe : but, as this is a province I
am but very little acquainted with, I hope the defedts of this perform¬
ance will be overlooked ; feeing I have only endeavoured to exprefs
the meaning of the Author, without any pretended ornamental addi¬
tions of my own, confining myfelf to his own thoughts, and rarely
adding an epithet to fill up a line, but what naturally belongs to the
fubjedt, and is included in the text.

As to the explanatory Notes which I have added to the Tranflation,
I know very well, that fome of them will be regarded by many as
mere puerilities, and little accounted of by fuch as are of a more deli¬
cate tafie : but it ought to be confidered, that this Tranflation is not
at all defigned for fuch as can readily make ufe of the original, and
are acquainted with claflical learning : to fuch, no doubt, both the
Tranflation and the Notes will be but very infipid, and of no ufe at
all ; but to fuch as are not of this character, yet have a defire to know
fomething of the Roman Hufbandry, and domeflic Oeconomy, it is
hoped the Notes will not be altogether ufelefs and unacceptable : for,
as the Author frequently makes mention both of perfons, places, and
things, which probably they have little or no notion of, it is reafon-
able to fuppofe, that a brief account of them will not be altogether
difagreeable, fince nothing more is intended, than, by thefe fhort and
imperfect: hints, to make the Tranflation more intelligible and agree¬
able to them. I have fometimes alfo taken notice of fome different

i readings,

viii The PREFACE.

readings, and doubtful p.hrafes and words, in order to give occafion
to fome judicious perfon, who may call: an eye upon them, to make
fome attempt to redtify them.

I was not unacquainted with the difficulty of tranflating this Au¬
thor, fo as to give any tolerable fatisfadlion either to myfelf or others,
and even with the impoffibility of rendering into Englijh many things
mentioned by him, and of finding proper words in the vaft variety of
things which he treats of ; and that learned Men are not at all agreed
about the Englijh names of feveral herbs, trees, fhrubs, fifhes,
fowds, &c. which exadtly anfwer to their Greek and Latin names:
but, as this is no hindrance at all to the right underffanding of the
moil eflential things, and of the general rules and directions, and other
things of the greated importance, both in Hufbandry and Oeconomy,
I cannot think but it is better to have a Tranflation, with fome im¬
perfections of no great importance, than to have no Tranflation at all.
In the names of herbs, trees, fhrubs, &c. I have followed fome of
our belt Authors, particularly the ingenious Mr. Miller, whofe know¬
ledge in thefe things is well known to the world : and, in the propor¬
tion that the Roman meafures, both of length and capacity, bear to
the Englijh, and in fome other things, I could not follow a fafer
guide than the learned Dr. Arbuthnot. In the great variety of dif¬
ferent readings of the Text, I have chofen what I thought the mod
probable ; but, for the mod part, I have followed that excellent edi¬
tion publifhed by the learned Gefnerus , Profeffor of Eloquence and
Poetry at Ottinghen, whofe vad labour, and judicious obfervations,
have greatly contributed to make not only Columella , but the other
Roman writers upon Hufbandry, more intelligible, and to redore them
to their original purity.

As to Columella himfelf, we can know very little of him, but what
we gather from his own words in this Treatife : Pliny indeed, and
Palladius , often mention him ; and Vegetius , who, in his Treatife of
Farriery, frequently borrows from him, commends his flowing elo¬
quence; yet they give us no further account of him. It feems evident
enough, that he was ja Spaniard ; for lib. viii. cap. 16. he intimates,
that he was a Citizen of the municipal city of Cadiz, nojlro Gadium
vntnicipio. He feveral times makes mention of his uncle Marcus Co¬
lumella , as a perfon of great note and didinCtion, and as having an
edate in the Province of Bcetica : probably he was born of Roman

parents ;

The PREFACE. ix

Parents ; for, no doubt, many Romans fettled in that delightful
country.

I t does not appear at what time he removed to Rome ; but there
is fome reafon to think, that it was in the reign of Tiberius, if not
before ; for he fays in his Third Book, that he had poffefled lands
many years in the Territory of Ardea , and that he wrote his Eleventh
Book at the defire of one Claudius An gu ft alls, a young man of fome
learning and diftindtion. That this Claudius is the fame who was
afterwards Emperor, cannot indeed be affirmed for certain ; yet it is
not altogether improbable : for Tacitus tells us, that Tiberius made
him a Fellow of the College of Priefts, which he had inftituted in
honour of Augujlus : and I know no reafon why he may not be the
perfon mentioned by our Author, who, probably, would neither have
been influenced by him to write the faid Book, nor would he have
given him fo honourably a character, if he had not been of fuperior
rank ; and the character given is, according to Suetonius , applicable
to Claudius in his younger years. He fpeaks of Cornelius Celfus and
yulius Atticus, as Men of his own time ; and it is certain the fir ft
flourifhed in the reign of Tiberius. He feveral times makes mention
of yulius Grcecihus , without any intimation of the hard fate of that
good Man, who was put to death by the Emperor Caligula ; fo that
there is fome reafon to think, that he was living when Columella
wrote. If what is above faid be true, then he wrote a part of this
Treatife in the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula.

I N his Third Book he mentions Annaeus Seneca as then living, and
commends him for his great learning ; but fays nothing of his being
advanced to the dignity of a Senator, nor of his being entrufted by
Claudius with the education of Nero his adopted Son and Succeflbr ;
which, probably, he would have taken fome notice of, if Seneca had
been then promoted to thefe dignities : fo that it is reafonable to
think, that he wrote this Book, at leaft, fome time before this hap¬
pened ; probably in the firft years of the reign of Claudius , who, in
the feventh or eighth year thereof, adopted Nero, and committed him
to the care of Seneca , the faid Nero being then eleven or twelve years
of age; and Claudius dying five or fix years after, Nero fucceeded,
being only feventeen years old, according to Suetonius , and, as Eufe-
bius fays, in the year of our Lord ff. at which time, it is probable.
Columella had finiflied his whole work. There is only one thing

a which

X

fhe PREFAC E.

which may give reafon to think, that it was fome time after this be¬
fore he finifhed it j viz. in his Firft Book, cap. 7. he makes mention
of L. Volufius , a very old rich Man, of Confular dignity j and his
words feem to intimate, that he was then dead. But ‘Tacitus fays,
that this Volufius died aged ninety-feven, in the 809th year of Rome ,
which was the 56th year of our Lord. If Columella's words muft be
fo underflood as to fignify, that Volufius was dead when he fpoke of
him, then we muft conclude, that it was fome time after this be¬
fore he published his work j but it was in Seneca's life-time, who
was put to death by Nero , Anno Domini 65. Notwithftanding all
that has been fat'd, the precife time, either of his writing or publifh-
ing it, cannot be determined. I doubt not he employed many years
about it, and wrote fome parts of it in all the reigns above-men¬
tioned j and that he did not write all the Books in the order they are
now placed, feveral of them having no dependence on the foregoing -y
and that a great part of the Firft Book, being a Preface to the whole,
was written laft of all. However, it is evident enough, that he wrote
in Rome , or in fome part of Latium , by his manner of expreffion
fome times in mentioning thefe places.

This Treatife of Hufbandry confifts of Twelve Books, in which
he has touched upon fuch a vaft variety of things, and explained all
the different branches of the Art with fuch perfpicuity, and deli¬
vered his precepts with fo great judgment, as fhow him to have been
perfectly mafter of his fubjedt ; and, throughout the whole, there are
fo many evidences of his having been fo well acquainted with all the
different parts of learning ; and that he had fo carefully examined all
the Authors, both Greek and Latin , that had treated of the fame
fubjeft before his own time ; and that to his theory he had added his
own experience ; as give us abundant reafon to think, that no Man
could ever have been better qualified to undertake fuch a work : fo
that the character he gives to Marcus Columella , his uncle, may very
juftly be applied to himfelf, Vir acris ingenii , & omnibus dijciplinis
infruShis , illuftrifque Agricola j having, to all his other opportuni¬
ties of improvement in knowledge and experience, added that of tra¬
velling into foreign countries ; for he tells us, that he had been in
Syria and Cilicia ; and it is not probable, that a Man of his character
would pafs by Greece without vifiting it. All thefe Twelve Books he
inferibes to one Publius Silvinus , of whom he gives us no particular
account • only infinuates, that, at his defire and requeft, he had

undertaken

ft PREFACE. xi

undertaken and carried on the faid work. We may reafonably think,
that this Silvinus was a perfon of fome confiderable note and. difiinc-
tion, by the refpeCtful manner in which he always addrelles himfelf
to him } and, as Columella mentions fome lands that they both had
amongd the Ceretani , a people in Spain, it is not improbable, that
he alfo was a Spaniard.

Besides thele Twelve Books, infcribed to Silvinus , there is a
Book concerning Trees, wherein there is no mention made of him..
This fingle Book appears to be a part of a former EfTay of Columella's
upon Hufbandry ; for, in the very beginning, there is mention made
of a preceding Book concerning the Culture of Lands. What feems
moft probable is, that Columella having at fird written more briefly
upon this fubjeCt, it was fo well received, that, at the preffing defire
of his friends, he inlarged it, and put it into a new form, as we
have it now, in Twelve Books ; which being a complete Syftem of
Hufbandry, his fird Elfay came to be lefs ufed, as being lefs perfect,
and afterwards a part of it was loft : this fome Tranfcribers, and the
firft Editors, not having confidered, placed it as the Third Book of
his Hufbandry ; which confounded the order of the whole, as has
been more fully taken notice of in the Note annexed to this fingle
Book.

COLUMELLA wrote upon feveral .‘other fubje&s befidcs Huf¬
bandry. He tells us, lib. xi. cap. i. that he had written again d
Adrologers ; not thofe who only obferved the motions of the heavenly
bodies, and made conjectures of what probably might, or commonly
did, happen before, or after, or at the riling and letting of certain
Stars i but fuch as he calls Chaldeans, who vainly pretended to fore-
tel, with certainty, what alterations would happen in the air and
weather, upon fuch and fuch days, &c. Lie alfo had formed a dcfign
to write of the Ludrations and Sacrifices in ufe among the Antients,
for preferving the fruits of the ground, &c. But, whether he ever
finifhed this work, is very uncertain ; and I do not find, that any
other thing, befides his Hufbandry, has been preferved to our days.
He v/as a great admirer of Virgil , and cites him upon many occa-
fions ; but feldom without fome epithet or other, expreflive of the
great veneration and regard he had for him, and of the deference lie
paid to his judgment. He feems not only to have been a great lover
of Poetry, but alio no mean Poet himfelf j of which he has given

a 2 furficient

xii Thi PREFACE.

fufficient evidence in his Tenth Book, which, he fays, he wrote in
verfe, net only to gratify Silvinus , but alio in obedience to Virgil ,
who recommended that fubject to the care of fome future Poet : and,
confidering the nature and difficulty thereof, he has fucceeded very
well. He has not, indeed, greatly embellilhed his Poem with many
new poetical conceits of his own, but he has introduced into it leveral
old fabulous ffories, and applied them dextrouffy enough to his own
purpofe : but, as his bufinefs was rather to inftruct than to amule, it
is rather an advantage than a blemifh to it, that it confiffs more of
brief descriptions, and of plain directions and precepts, than of fic¬
tions ; his expreffion, for the molt part, being both poetical, natural,
and agreeable enough.

His ftyle, in the opinion of all good judges, is exceeding polite
and elegant : and though the fubject he treats of, and the perl'ons for
whole ufe he principally wrote, did not allow any great difplay of
eloquence ; yet, upon all occafions, he has fo eafy and natural a way
of exprefiing himfelf; and, in different places, ufes fuch a vaft va¬
riety of words and phrafes to exprefs one and the fame thing (which
by no means darken, but greatly illuffrate the fubject) ; and in the
beginning and conclufion of feveral of his Books, and in fome other
places of his work, he has given fuch remarkable inftapees of his
eloquence, that he may very juftly be reckoned amongft the moft
polite Roman writers; and, if he had applied himfelf to that ftudy,
he would, no doubt, have been ranked among the moft eloquent
Orators.

He fometimes feems to recommend to Hufbandmen fome practices,
which feem rather to be mere fuperftitious cuffoms, than to have any
foundation in Nature : but, as fuch things frequently occur in the
beff Roman Authors, and as the manner in which he mentions them
fhows that he laid no ffrefs upon them, but rather reported them as
things in common practice ; th'efe fmall deformities ought not to make
any abatement of our value and effeem : for it muff be faid, that there
are few antient Authors fo much exempted from fuperftitious and
groundlefs prejudices as Columella , who feems to have been a declared
enemy to that fort of Men, who contributed moft to eftablifh and
cheriffi them. . 3

Tie PREFACE, xifi

I t is very remarkable, that in no part of his work he has given
us the leaft intimation, under whole adminiftration public affairs
then were, nor under whole Confulfhip he lived when he wrote any
part of it ; nor does he make the leaft reflection upon the ftate of
public affairs ; which fhows his extreme caution, and the difficulty
of the times he lived in : but he has not ufed fo much referve with
refpeCt to the temper and difpofition, and the moral character, of the
generality of mankind at the time he wrote ; for he tells us very
plainly, that the antient frugality, parfimony, temperance, moder¬
ation, and induftry, were no more in fafhion, yea, in a great meafure,
extinCt and gone j and that unbounded luxury, ambition, covetouf-
nefs, intemperance, and idlenefs, had fucceeded in their room • that
open robberies and depredations were carried on, even in the place of
juftice itfelf, by calumniating and accufing the innocent rich Man,
in order to get poffeffion of his eftate : that the eloquent tongue, for¬
merly employed in defence of the innocent and oppicfied, was be¬
come mercenary and venal, and exerted itfelf in the defence and
fupport of the guilty: that Men of eftates, who formerly refided
much in the country, governed their own families, and managed
their own affairs, had committed the management of all to Bailiffs
and Stewards, and had, in a great meafure, deferted the country, and
lived in town, abandoning themfelves wholly to the pleafures and
diverfions of the fame : that their Wives, not, as formerly, driving to.
excel in all parts of Houfwifry, and taking upon themfelves the
whole burden of domeftic affairs within-doors, were become fo
delicate, and fuch lovers of the town, that they could not endure to
pafs a few weeks in the country, and thought it greatly below
themfelves to caft their eyes upon the inftruments of Husbandry ;
that, inftead of manufacturing wool and flax at home for their own
and’ their family’s ufe, as the celebrated Roman Matrons were for¬
merly wont to do, they could not endure home-made clothes, but,
by flattering careffes, obtained of their Hufbands fuch as were more
coffly ; to purchafe which, they often expended almoft their whole
yearly income: that Men, by their diflolute and intemperate living,
and perverting the natural order of things, by turning night into day,
and day into night, had fo diffipated and wafted their natural ftren'gth,
and their bodies were fo enervated, that they were almoft dead while
•alive, and death feemed to make no great alteration upon them, fo
that they loon became ufelefs both. to themfelves, and to theii couutiy :

xfr Tbs PREFACE.

that many chofe rather, by fervile attendance, vain expectations, and
fruitlefs foiicitations, to confume their time, and their fubftance,
than, by carefully improving and cultivating their paternal inherit¬
ance, raife for themfelves a comfortable and honourable fubfiftence
and revenue, free from all abject and flavifh dependency. This
fhameful degeneracy from the virtue of their Anceftors, and general
corruption of manners, at length proved fatal to the Roman datej
and, generally fpeaking, the fame caufes produce -the fame effects.

t

the

THE

CONTENTS.

Book First.

Chap. I. F the Rules 'which they who would live in the Country ,
f J and apply thernf elves to Hufbandry , ought to follow.

^ II. Of the moft approved Situation and Qualities of
Land.

III. Of fuel b Things as are principally to be confdered, in view¬
ing and examining Land before it be bought.

IV. Of the JVholfomeneJs of Countries.

V. Of Water.

VI. Of the Poftion and Difpoftion of a Manor-houfe.

VII. Of the Offices of a M after of a Family.

VIII. Of Cattle , and of Herdfmen and Shepherds, and fuch as
have the Overfight of Cattle.

IX. Of what Size , and Plight of Body, the Slaves mujl be, which
are to be ajfigned to every particular Work .

Book Second.

Chap. I. That the Earth neither grows old, nor wears cut , if it be
dunged.

II. Of the fever al Kinds of Land.

III. Of the Care that is to be taken of Oxen when they are
unyoked.

IV. Of the Time of the Tear when, and hew Lands mufi be
plowed.

Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. V. Of the Manner of dunging lean, thin Land ,

VI. Of the fever al Sorts of Seeds.

VII. Of the fever al Sorts of Pulfe.

VIII. Of the proper Lime for Sowing.

IX. How many Modii of Seed a Jugerum of Land requires j and
of the Cure of Seeds.

X. Of the proper Soil for every Kind of Pulfe.

XI. Of the feveral Sorts of Fodder , of Medic or Lucern , Vetches
or Lares , Mifcelline , Oats, Fenugreek , the bitter Vetch , and
the Chichpcafe.

XII. After what Manner , and with what Number of Labourers ,
each Sort of Corn and Pulfe may be cultivated.

XIII. How many Day-Labourers may be ajjigned to every Sort of
Land , in Proportion to the Extent of it , and to the Mariner
of cultivating it.

XIV. What Sorts of Pulfe are hurtful to Lands , and what are
of Benefit to them.

XV. Of the feveral Sorts of Dung.

XVI. At what Limes Lands mufi be dunged.

XVII. After what Manner arable Lands may be reduced into
Meadows.

XVIII. After what Manner Meadows , when they are made , mufi
be cultivated.

XIX. After what Manner Hay ought to be managed \ when it is
cut down ; and how it ought to be laid up.

XX. Of making and putting a Lhre firing- floor into due Order.

XXI. Of reaping Corns , and of threfhing them.

XXII. What Things an Hujbandman may lawfully do upon Holi¬
days, and what not.

Book Third.

Chap. I. What Kind of Vine may be proper for every Soil } and fuit-
able to the State of the Climate.

II. What Vines mufi be planted for Food in Lands near the
City.

III. Lhat there is nothing of greater Advantage , and more ex¬
pedient for Hujbandmen , than to cultivate Vineyards.

IV. What Things he ought to obferve , who plants Vineyards.

Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. V. In what Sort of Ground , and after what Manner a Nur -
fery of Vines mufl be planted.

VI. What Sort of Shoot or Cutting mufi be chofen, and from what
Parts of the Vine it mufi be gathered.

VII. How you may know and dif cover the Fruitfulnefs of a.
Vine.

VIII. What Quality you are principally to have regard to , in
Ground that you define for Vineyards.

IX. How you may make Aminean Vines fruitful.

X. From what Part of the Vine the Plants mufi be chofen.

XI. What Qualities you mufi have regard to in that Ground which
you define for Vineyards.

XII. Of fuch Things as Julius Graecinus delivered to us, concern¬
ing Land proper for Vineyards.

XIII. After what Manner the Earth ought to be paftinated.

XIV. How many Ways a Vine may be planted, either in Italy, or
in the Provinces.

XV. That it is better to plant in pafiinated Ground , than in
Trenches or Furrows made in fallow Ground , or in that which
is newly broken up.

XVI. What Meajure or Quantity of pafiinated Ground may be
fufficient for Vineyards.

XVII. After what Manner , and at what Time a Vine is to be
planted.

XVIII. What Things one ought to obferve who plants a Vine.

XIX. How long the Cutting ought to be.

XX. How many Kinds of Vines are to be planted.

XXI. Whether the feveral Kinds of Vines are to be planted i?i
difiindl Divifions , feparately by themfelves.

Book Fourth.

Chap. I. That Trenches of Two Feet are not deep enough for Vine-
plants , contrary to the Opinion of Atticus and Celfus.

II. That the Branches of one Quickfet ought not to clothe Two
Props , but every Jingle Plant mufi -have its own Prop afiigned
to it.

III. That a Vineyard newly planted will fpeedily decay and perijh ,
if it is not Jupported by great and afjiduous Culture,

b

Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. IV. That the Vine ought to he laid jlat in the Trench ; and after
bending it back from the Bottom of the fame, and raifing it up
ftraight , it ougfyt to be applied to a Reed.

V. sifter the Vifies are planted , we muf dig the Ground every
Month, and take care that Weeds do not fpring up in it ; and
the Quickfets muf be reduced to one fngle Branch of Firm-
wood.

VI. That fuperfuous Leaves and Twigs ought to be cut off from
QuickJets and Cuttings.

VII. That then is the due Seafon for pampinating, when the Twigs
can be fruck off with the Finger.

VIII. That a Vineyard muf be ablaqueated in the Autumn.

IX. After what Manner an ablaqueated Vine muf be pruned.

X. Of the bef Time for pruning.

XI. How a Cutting ought to be cut and lopped.

XII. After what Manner a Vineyard muf be propped j and of
the fngle Frame for Vines.

XIII. After what Manner a Vine is to be tied.

XIV. Cuttings mu ft be put upon a Frame, and how high the fngle
Frame or Rail muf be raifed.

XV. After what Manner a Vineyard muf be recruited > and how
Layers are to be made.

XVI. At what Time a Quickfet muf be tranfplanted.

XVII. After what Manner a Frame muf be made with Reeds.

XVIII. Of dividing a Vineyard into fmall Orchards.

XIX. Of the Poftion of a Frame , and how far it muf be raifed
above the Ground.

XX. Of the Bufnefs of binding Vines.

XXI. Of the Way and Manner of pruning a young Vineyard.

XXII. After what Manner old Vineyards are to be refored.

XXIII. After what Manner Vineyards muf be pruned.

XXIV. Of fuch Things as a good Vine -dr eft "er ought to avoid or
purfue in a well-confituted Vineyard.

XXV. Of the Figure of the Bill or Pruning-knife.

XXVI. Of the Care of propping a Vineyard , and putting it upon
Frames.

XXVII. What Things a good Vine-dreffer ought to avoid or
purfue in a Vineyard already confituted, and put into good
Order.

XXVIII. How a Vineyard ought to be pampinated ; and how many
Diggings are neceffary for fuffciently cultivating it.

Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. XXIX. Of ingrafting Vines , and preferving the Ingraftments.

XXX. Of Directions relating to Props for Vines , and to Ofiers ,
and Willow-groves.

XXXI. Of Broom.

XXXII. Of Ground planted with Reeds.

XXXIII. Of Chefnut-trees , and Chef nut -groves.

Book Fifth.

Chap. I. After what Manner you ought to meafure the given Forms of
Lands ,

II. Of the feveral Forms of Lands , and of their Dimenfions.

III. How many Plants a Jugerum of Land may receive , when
they are fet at the Difiance of Three Feet , and from that to
the Difia?ice of Ten Feet from each other.

IV. Of the Culture of provincial Vineyards.

V. A Repetition of thoje Things which have been mentioned by
their feveral Kinds.

VI. Of making Groves and Plantations of Elms.

VII. Of Gallic Plantations of Trees for Jupporting Vines.

VIII. Of the feveral Sorts of Olive-trees.

IX. Of making Nurferies for Olive-yards.

X. Of pomiferous Trees.

XI. Of Ingrafting of Trees.

XU. Of the Cytifus or Shrub-trefoil.

Book Sixth.

Chap. I. Of buying Oxen , and of their Shape and Make.

II. Of breaking of Oxen.

III. Of the Care that is requifite in buying of Oxen} and of the
Food that is proper for them.

IV. Of the Difeafes of Oxen, and of their Remedies.

V. Of fuch Things as bri?ig the Plague upon Cattle , and what
Remedies are to be applied.

VI. Of Remedies to be applied to Oxen that are difordered wtth
Indigeflion.

VII. With what Remedies the Pain of the Belly , and of the lu¬
te/lines of Cattle , may be quieted.

b i Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. VIII. Of a difiempered Growth or Swelling of the Tongue.

IX. Of the Fever of Oxen.

X. Of' the Cough of Oxen.

XI. Of Remedies for an Impoflume.

XII. Of the Remedy to be applied to an Ox that is lame.

XIII. Of Remedies for curing the Scab , and the Bite of a mad
Dog , or a Wolf ; and alfojor curing Hidebinding.

XIV. Of Remedies for ulcerated Lungs , and Swelling of the
Palate and Neck.

XV. Of curing their Paferns or Hoofs when they are hurt.

XVI. Of Remedies for their Jprained Shoulders, and broken Horns.

XVII. Of Remedies againf the Bitings of Serpents , and other
noxious Animals.

XVIII. Of Remedies to be given the?n when they have fwallowed
an Horfeleech with their Water.

XIX. Of a Machine in which Cattle are Jhut up when their Sores
are drejjed.

XX. Of the Form and Shape of a Bull.

XXI. Of the Form or Shape of a Cow.

XXII. Of reviewing and picking the Cattle every Tear.

XXIII. Of making Inclofures and Stables.

XXIV. Of the Age fit for a Bull to couple with the Female.

XXV. Of Remedies for Worms in Calves.

XXVI. Of cafirating Calves.

XXVII. Of Horfes.

XXVIII. Of the Age of a Stallion.

XXIX. Of the Temper , Difpofition , and Form of an Horfe.

XXX. Of the Care of Horfes , and of Medicines proper for
them.

XXXI. Of Remedies for a Cough.

XXXII. Of Remedies for Hurts by interfering , and for the Scab.
XXXIII. Of Remedies againfi Flies , and for Pains in the Eyes.
XXXIV. Of Remedies for Naufeating of their Food, and a pefii-
lential Falling away of their Flejh.

XXXV. Of Madnejs incident to Mares .

XXXVI. Of Mules.

XXXVII. Of refraining the Cruelty of a Stallion mad upon gra¬
tifying his Lufi.

XXXVIII. Of Medicines for curing Mules.

Book

The CONTENTS.

Book Seventh.

Chap. I. Of thefmall He-afs.

II. Of buying and managing of Sheep.’

HI. Of chufing Rams.

IV. Of covered Sheep .

V. Of Remedies for Sheep-Cattle.

VI. Of Goat-Cattle.

VII. Of Medicines for Goats.

VIII. Of the Method of making Cheefe.

IX. Of Swine , and Medicines proper for them.

X. Of Medicines proper for Swine.

XI. Of Caflrating of Swine.

XII. Of Dogs.

XIII. Of Difeafes incident to Dogs, and of the Way of curing
them.

Book Eighth.

Chap. I. Of Pafluring in and about the Manor-houfe.

II. Of the fever a l Kinds of common Poultry-yard Hens and Cocks,
proper to be provided and brought up.

III. Of the right Contrivance and making of an Hen-houfe.

IV. Of Food proper for Hens.

V. Of preferving the Eggs , and fetting them under the Hens.

VI. Of Eggs. '

VII. Of fattening and cramming of Hens.

VIII. Of cramming of Wood-Pigeons , or Ring-Doves , or tame
Pigeons , that breed in little Cells about the Houfe , and of
making Pigeon-houfes.

IX. Of the bringing up of Turtle-Doves.

X. Of the bringing up of Thrufes.

XI. Of the bringing up of Peacocks.

XII. Of the bringing up of Numidian and Ruflic Hens.

XIII. Of Fowls , which the Greeks call (amphibious)}

and the Latins duplicis vitae {of a double Life).

XIV. Of the bringing up of Geefe, and making a Goofe-pen for
keeping and feeding them .

Chap,

The CONTENTS.

Chap. XV. Of Ducks , Teals , and the like.

XVI. Of Fijh-ponds, and of feeding of Fifkes.

XVII. Of the Situation of a Fijh-pond.

Book Ninth.

Chap. I. Of making Parks , and putting up wild Cattle in them.

II. Of Bees.

III. Of the federal Kinds of Bees , and which of them is the
bejl.

IV. Of the Pajlures proper for Bees , and what Sort of Situation
the fame ought to have.

V. Of chujing Seats for Bees.

VI. Offuch Sorts of Bee-hives as ought to be approved.

VII. After what Manner the Rives mujl be placed.

VIII. Of pur chafing Bees , and how wild Swarms may be taken.

IX. After what Manner our own Country-Bees ought to be ob-
fervedy and put up in Hives.

X. Of the Form and Make of the King of the Bees.

XI. How the Smallnefs of the Number of the Bees may be reme¬
died.

XII. * Of putting up a Swarm of Bees into their Hive , and
hindering them from making their Efcape.

XIII. Of Remedies for Bees labouring under any Diflemper.

XIV. Of that which the Bees do at all TimeSy and what the
Perfon that has the Care of them ought to do.

XV. Of the Making of Honey , and of the Time when the Hives
ought to be caflrated.

XVI. Of the Making of Wax.

Book Tenth.

Of the Culture of Gardens , in Verfe.

Book Eleventh.

Chap. I. What Things ought to be done within the Manor-houfe by a
Man advanced to, and intrufled with the Office of a Bailiff'.

4 Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. II. What mujl be done every Month , by accommodating all Sorts
of Work to the 'Times and Seafons.

III. Of the Culture of Gardens, and of Garden-herbs , in Profe.

Book Twelfth.

Chap. I. Of the Care that the Bailiff's Wife ought to take of the
Hon fold- affa irs, and of the Precepts Jhe ought to obferve.

II. Aft er what Manner Jhe ought to manage the Provifons, or
the Store-houfes.

III. Of the Diftribution of the Implements of Hujbandry, and
the Hou [hold-furniture.

IV. What Kinds of Veffels fe ought to prepare for falting and
pickling Provifons , and for Conferves.

V. How Vinegar may be made of fat Wine.

VI. How frong Brine or Pickle may be made.

VII. What Herbs may be pickled throughout the Four Seafons of
the Tear , and after what Manner.

VIII. How Oxygal, or four Milk may be made.

IX. Of pickling of Lettuce.

X. Of preferring of Onions, Pears and Apples , and all Fruits
of the Apple- kind.

XI. Of the Composition of a fweet Water , which they rife for the-
preferving of Fruit.

XII. Of the Way to make Mead.

XIII. Of preferving Cheeje , and pickling certain Herbs.

XIV. Of drying Apples and Pears in the Sun.

XV. Of dry Figs.

XVI. Of making dried Raifins , or Raifms of the Sun, and pre¬
ferving Sorb-apples.

XVII. Of making Vinegar of Figs.

XVIII. Of Juch Things as mujl be prepared for the Vintage.

XIX. Of feveral Compofitions for preferving and Jlrengthening
Wine.

XX. Of boiling Mujl into one Half or one Third of the frf
Quantity.

XXI. Of Rob of Grapes, or Muft boiled in to a third Part of its
frf Quantity , put to Wine , to preferve it till it become old.

Chap.

The CONTENTS.

Chap. XXII. Another Medicament of liquid Pitch (or Tar) wherewith
you may preferve Wine.

XXIII. Of Pitch , which the Savoyards ufe for preferving of
pitched Wine.

XXIV. Of Nemeturian Pitch.

XXV. Of fait Water and ftrong Brine for preferring Wines.

XXVI. Of Remedies for Wine that grows four.

XXVII. Of making fweet Wine.

XXVIII. Of other wholfome Sorts of Preferves.

XXIX. After what Manner Mujl may be kept always fweet , as
if it were new.

XXX. Of the bef Way of curing Wine, and of Remedies for
Wine that is upon the Decay.

XXXI. Of Remedies in cafe any living Creature fall into the
Mu ft , and perifh in it.

XXXII. Of Horehound-wine.

XXXIII. Of Sqiiil- wine.

XXXIV. Of Squil-vinegar.

XXXV. How you muf make Wormwood-wine , Hyfbp-winey
Southernwood - and other Sorts of Wine.

XXXVI. Of Muf of the laf PreJJing , or fqueezed Muf.
XXXVII. To make Wine like to Greek Wine.

XXXVIII. How you may make Myrtle-wine.

XXXIX. After what Manner Wine may be made of Grapes dried
in the Sun.

XL. How the bef fmall thin Wine may be made.

XLI. How to make the bef Honey-wine.

XLII. Of preferving Cheefe.

XLIII. After what Manner potted Grapes may be put up and
kept.

XLIV. After what Manner Pomegranates may be preferve d.
XLV. How Globe-apples , or Pome-paradiJ'es , Honey-apples , Seftian
Apples , and other Kinds may be preferved.

XLV I. Of pickling of Ele campane.

XLVII. Of pickling of Olives.

XLVIII. Of the Way to pickle black Olives,

XLIX. How a Marmelade of Olives may be made.

L. After what Manner Oil may be made.

LI. Of Gleucine Oil.

LII. After what Manner you may make OH for Ointments.

LIII. Of falting of Swines Flejh.

Chap.

s'

The CONTENTS.

Chap. LIV. After what Manner you may pickle Turneps and Navews.
LV. How you may make Muftard.

LVI. After what Manner you may preferve and pickle the Alif-
fander - and Skirret-Roots.

LVII. How to make up a Sallet of eafy and quick Digeftion , or,
as others will have it , a Sallet or Sawce with a Mixture of
Garum and Vinegar.

' ■ ’ • " v • * ' '

The BOOK concerning TREES.

Chap. I. Of a Nurfery of Vines.

II. What Sorts of Plants or Shoots you ought to gather , and

when.

III. After what Manner you may choofe your Shoots $ and of the
Quality and Condition of the Ground.

IV. Of the fever al Kinds of Vineyards.

V. After what Manner Vines ought to he cultivated.

VI. Of cutting and propagating an old V ineyard.

VII. Of propagating Vines .

VIII. Of Ingraftments from Fruit-bearing Vines , in order to
make Vines fruitful.

IX. How a Clufier of Grapes may have Berries of feveral Kinds.

X. How you may prune the Vines , after you have gathered the
Grapes.

XI. Of pampinating a Vineyard , or pulling off its fuperfluous
Shoots and Leaves.

XII. Of digging of Vineyards.

XIII. To preferve the Vines from being hurt by Mildew.

XIV. To prevent the Ants from climbing up upon Trees.

XV. How to prevent Ants and Vine-fretters from vexing the
Vine.

XVI. Of Plantations of Trees for fupporting Vines .

XVII. Of Olive-yards.

XVIII. Of confituting an Orchard.

XIX. Of making Trenches.

XX. How you may choofe the Plants for an Orchard.

XXI. When the Fig-tree muft be planted.

XXII. Of planting Nuts.

XXIII. Of planting the Pomegranate ,

Cliag,

c

The € O N T E N T S.

Chap. XXIV. Of the Pear-tree.

XXV. Of planting Apples.

XXVI, Of ingrafting Trees.

XXVII. That Cyons of all Kinds may be grajfed upon all Sorts of
Trees •whatfoever .

XXVIII. Of the Cythifus, or Shrub-trefoil.

XXIX. Of the Willow-tree of Broomy and of the Reed .

XXX. Of the Violet , and the Rofe .

2

A Brief

A Brief Explication of a few Original Words retained

in this Tranflation.

Uzerunu a fuperficial meafure of land among the Romans , confiding of

~T- “ Engl. Feet. Dec.

** 28800 Roman feet, which make 27849,60. See a further

account of it lib. v. cap. 1 .

Modius , a dry meafure of capacity, which contained a little more than a Win-
chefier peck. See it further explained page 64.

Ligula fignified at firft a fpoon, but was afterwards ufed as a meafure, and is
the fmalleft mentioned by Columella , and very little more than the
48th part of a pint.

Cyathus , a meafure of liquid things : it contained 4 ligula, and was a little
more than the 1 2th part of a pint.

Hemina contained 24 ligula, or fix cyathi , and was a little more than half a
pint.

Sextarius, a meafure both of liquid and dry things : it contained two hemina ,
12 cyathi , or 48 ligula: it made a little more than a wine-pint ;
and it was fo called, becaufe it was the fixth part of the congius.

Urna , a meafure of liquid things, which contained 24 fextarii , and amounted,
in Englijh meafure, to 3 gallons 4 | pints, and a fmall fraftion
more.

Amphora , contained 2 urna , or 48 fextarii , amounting, in Englijh meafure,
to 7 gallons, one pint, and a fmall fraction of a pint : it was alfo a
meafure of liquid things.

Culleus or culeus, the greateft meafure of liquid things among the Romans : it
contained 20 amphora , in Englijlo meafure 143 gallons, 3 pints, and
. a fmall fra&ion. See a more diftind account of thefe larger mea-
fures in page 1 18.

Sejlertius , a Roman coin, of the value of two affes and a half-, four of them
made a denarius , which, by the beft judges, is computed to be
worth 7 d. |. Englijh money. See a further account of it in
page 1 19.

To ablaqueate , is to dig round a vine, or any other tree, in order to lay its
roots bare, and expofe them to the Sun, Wind, and Rain, and to
cutoff the fuperfluous roots, Seepage 168.

To pampinate, is to ftrike off the fuperfluous fhoots and twigs of vines, in
order to make them more able to nourilli their fruit, &c. See
page 196.

To farcle , or farculate , is to move the furface of the ground hardened by the
Sun, &c. in order to make it imbibe the Rain, and admit the
warmth of the Sun, that fo what grows upon it may thrive the

better.

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L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK FIRST.

The PREFACE. To Publius Silvinus.

I frequently near the principal men of our city blaming, fometimes
the unfruitfulnefs of the ground, at other times the intemperatenefs
of the weather, as hurtful to the fruits of the earth for many
ages now part : fome alfo I hear mitigating, in fome meafure,
as it were, the forefaid complaints, becaufe they are of opinion,
that the ground, being, by its overmuch fruitfulnefs during the for¬
mer part of its duration, become barren, and worn out of heart, is
not now able, with its wonted bounty, to afford fuftenance to mor¬
tals. Which caufes, Publius Silvinus, I am fully perfuaded, are very
remote from the truth j becaufe it is neither lawful to think, that the
nature of the ground, which that original Former and Father of the
univerfe endowed with perpetual fecundity, is affetted with barren-
nefs, as with a certain difeaie j nor does it become a wife man to be¬
lieve, that the earth, which, having a divine and everlafling youth
beftowed upon it, is called the common parent of all things, becaufe
it has always brought forth, and will henceforth bring forth, all things
whatfoever, is grown old, like a woman.

B (i) Nor,

2 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book I.

(i) Nor, after all, do I think, that thefe things befal us from the
diftemperature of the weather ■, but rather from our own fault, who
commit our Hufbandry to the very word; of our fervants, as a criminal
to a public executioner, which all the beft of our anceftors were wont
to treat with the greateft gentlenefs : and I cannot enough wonder,
why they, who defire to learn eloquence, are fo nice in their choice
of an orator, whofe eloquence they may imitate j and they, who
fearch after the knowledge of furveying or menfuration, and of
numbers, look out for a mafter of the art they delight in } and they,
who are defirous of fome fkill in dancing and mufic, are exceeding
fcrupulous in their choice of one to modulate their voice, and teach
them to fing agreeably ; and no lefs of a dancing-mafter, to regulate
the geftures and motions of their body ; alfo they, who have a mind
to build, fend for architects, mafons, and carpenters j and they,
who refolve to fend fhips to fea, fend for fkilful pilots ; they, who
make preparations for war, call for men, who underftand the art
of war, and are acquainted with military affairs ; and, not to men¬
tion every particular, in that ftudy which every one refolves to pro-
fecute, he makes ufe of the wifeft and ableft director he can find ;
finally, every one fends for a perfon from the fociety and aflembly
of the wife, to form his mind, and inftrudt him in the precepts of
virtue : but Hufbandry alone, which, without all doubt, is next to,
and, as it were, near akin to wifdom, is in want of both matters and
fcholars. For hitherto I have not only heard, that there are, but I
myfelf have feen, fchools of profeffors of Rhetoric, and, as I have
already faid, of Geometry, and of Mufic ; or, which is more to be
wondered at, academies for the mott contemptible vices, for deli¬
cately dreffing and feafoning of victuals, for contriving and making
up dainty and cottly difhes for promoting gluttony and luxury ; and
I have alfo feen head-dreffers and hair-trimmers; but, of Agriculture,

I have never known any that profeffed themfelves either teachers or
fhidents.

For, even fuppofe the city fhould want profeffors of the forefaid
arts, neverthelefs the commonwealth might be in a very flourifhing
condition, as in antient times j for, of old, cities were happy enough,
and will hereafter ttill be fo, without ludicrous arts, yea, even without

(i) Pliny, in his Natural Hiflory , lib. 18. cap. 2. fays, that the caufe of the former
plenty was, that the ground was at firft cultivated by the hands of Generals, Confuls,
Tribunes, and Senators j but afterwards by Slaves, Criminals, and Malefadtors, who bore
upon their bodies the marks of their infamy, and did not cultivate it fo carefully as thofe
men of honour and virtue did.

advocates

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 3

advocates al Co (2) : but without Hufbandmen, it is manifeft, that
mortals can neither fubfift, nor be maintained. For which reafon,
what is come to pafs, is the more like a prodigy, that a thing fo necef-
fary and convenient for our bodies, and the advantages of life, fhould,
to this very time, of all things whatfoever, have had the leaft coni
fummation ; and that this perfectly innocent way of enlarging and
preferving ones patrimony fhould be defpifed. For thole °other
different, and, as it were, repugnant ways of doing this, are contrary
and difagreeable to juflice ; unlefs we think it more agreeable to equity
to have acquired booty by a military profeffion, which brings us nothing
without blood and daughter, and the ruin and deftrudion of others.
Or, to fuch as hate war, can the hazard, uncertainty, and danger
of the fea, and of trade, be more defireable ? That Man, a terref-
trial animal, breaking through the boundary and law of nature,
and exposing himfelf to the rage of the winds and fea, fhould dare
to commit himfelf to the waves, and, after the manner of the fowls
of the air, always a ffranger upon a far diftant and foreign fhore, wan¬
der over the unknown world ? Or is ufury, which is odious, even to
thofe whom it feems to relieve, more to be approved ? Or is, forlooth,
that canine ftudy and employment, as the antients called it, of fnarling’
and barking at, and flanderoufly accufing every man of the greateft
lubffance ; and that open robbery of pleading againff the innocent,
and for the guilty, which was negleded and defpifed by our ance-
flors, but even permitted and allowed of by us within the walls, and

(2) Cauftdtcus, an appellation not very honourable amongft the 'Romans. Quintilian,
in his Institutions, lib. i. avoiding harfher terms, calls him vocem mercenariam , inutilem
litium advocatum, a mercenary tongue, a promoter of law-fuits, a wrangling advocate.
Our author leems to have had men of this character in great contempt, who employed
their eloquence either in pleading for the notorioufly wicked, or againft innocent per-
fons. If the_ word Caujidic were as well known as the word Advocate, it would be
more expreffive of the thing.

In our author’s days, the Romans had loft their liberty, and were under a very tyran¬
nical government and, no doubt, many of them, being greatly diflatisfied with their
prefent ftate, by their murmurings, and otherwife, made themfelves obnoxious to the
difpleafure and refentment of their oppreftors, who, by profcriptions, endeavoured to
deitroy all they fufpedled to be their enemies j and many of the orators of thofe days
became informers and accufers ; and, it feems, always pitched upon the richeft, with a
view to a fharc of the plunder. It is this canine eloquence, as they called it, which
our author cenfures j eloquence employed in defence of innocence, and againft the
guilty, in fupport of truth againft faliTiood and calumny, and efpecially in directing
the public counfels, appeafing popular commotions, and corredbng public errors, is a
divine endowment \ in all ages had in the greateft reputation by the wifcft nations,
and jultly promoted to the greateft honours : otherwife it is a very dangerous talent,
elpecially in countries where haranguing and pleading at the bar is much in ufe, if the
judges are not very fharp-fighted, to difeern true reafon from fophiftry.

4 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

in the very Forum itfelf (3), more excellent and honourable? Or,
fhould I reckon more honed: and honourable, the mod deceitful, lying,
and beggarly hawking of a mercenary levee-haunter, who is con-
ftantly flying about from the threshold of one great man in power
to that of another, and guefling, by the report of others, whether
his patron is awake, or not ? Nor, indeed, do the fervants vouchfafe
to anfwer him, when he afks what is a doing within-doors : or,
fhould I think it more fortunate, after having met with a repulfe
from the porter with his chains upon him, to loiter and hang about
the ungrateful and hateful doors, oft-times till it be late at night,
and, by a mod mean and pitiful fervitude and attendance, purchafe
with difgrace the honour of the FaJ'ces (4), or a government, or a
command in the army or navy, and, after all, fquander away one’s
own patrimony ? For honour is not bedowed, as a reward, upon
difintereded fervice and attendance, but upon fuch as make prefents,
and give bribes.

Now, if all good men ought to avoid thefe very things, and others
like to them, there is dill remaining, as I faid, one way of increafing
one’s fubdance, worthy of a freeman, and a gentleman ; which arifes
from Hufbandry, of which if the precepts were put in practice, fup-
pofe it were but imprudently, by fuch as have not been indrudted in it,
provided never thelefs they were poffeffors and proprietors of the lands,
which they cultivate, as was the antient cudom, rural affairs would
differ lefs damage ; for the indudry and diligence of the maders,
would, in many things, compenfate the lofs occafioned by ignorance ;
and they, whofe own intered lay at dake, would not appear to be all
their life-time willingly ignorant of their own bufinefs ; but thereby
becoming more defirous of learning, would attain to a thorough know¬
ledge of Hufbandry.

Now we difdain, and think it below us, to live upon, and cultivate
our own lands ourfelves, and look upon it as a matter of no moment,
to make choice of a man of the bed fenfe and fkill we can find, for
our Bailiff j or, if he be ignorant, at lead, of a man of vigour, vigi¬
lance, and activity, that he may learn the more fpeedily what he is
ignorant of. But, whether he be a rich man that purchafes a piece
of ground, he picks, out of his crew of footmen and chairmen, one
that is the feebled, and the mod worn out with years* and banifhes

(3) Forum fignifies the building, or place, where public courts of juftice were held ;
and matters of judgment pleaded and decided 3 or the court of juftice itfelf.

(4) Fafces were the public enfigns of magiftracy among the Romans , being a bundle
of rods, with an ax, tied together, and carried before the magiftrate.

him

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. $

him into the country : whereas that bufinefs requires, not only know¬
ledge, but green age, and ftrength of body, to bear labour and fatigue :
or if he be mailer of a middling eftate, he commands one of his hire¬
lings, who now refufes to pay that daily tribute of fervice required of
him, and cannot thereby increafe his income, to be director and over-
feer, who is ignorant of the bufinefs he is to have the overfight
of (5). Which things when I obferve, frequently confidering and
revolving in my mind, with how bale and lhameful an agreement and
confent rural difcipline is deferted, and worn out of ufe, I am in
dread, left it fhould be accounted villainous, and, in fome meafure,
lhameful and dilhonourable, for free-born men. But when, by the
records and writings of many authors, I am put in mind, that our
worthy anceftors looked upon it as their glory, to take care of their
rural affairs, and to employ themfelves in Hufbandry, from which (6)
Quintus Cincinnatus came, and refcued the befieged Conful and his
army, being called from the plough to the Ditftatorlhip j and again,
having laid down the Fajces , which, ‘when a Conqueror , he more
haftily furrendered, than he had affumed them when he was made
General , he returned to the fame fteers, and his fmall manor of four
jugera of land, left him by his anceftors (7) : and CaiusFabricius alfo,

and

(5) Ex mercenariis, aliquem jam recufantem , quotidianum illud tributum-, there feems to
be fomething wanting in this fentence, to make it more intelligible, which I cannot pre¬
tend to fupply : the intention of it muft either be what I have exprefled, or perhaps it
may fignify, that one of the hired fervants, who refufes to ferve for common wages, is
promoted to the office of a Bailiff.

(6) Quintus Cincinnatus was made Dictator during the Confulfhip of L. Minutius
Carbetus, and C. Nautius Rutilius Ilf. Anno 2.96. from the building of Rome. The mef-
fenger from the Senate found him ploughing his four jugera of land, which he had in
the Vatican , and which, from him, were called the Quint i an Meadows. It is faid, he was
naked, and all covered over with fweat and duft. The occafion of his being chofen
Di&ator, was, becaufe the Conful Minutius , and his army, were befieged in their camp
by the enemy, and were in danger of being made prifoners of war. This ftory is
elegantly told by Livy, dec. 1. lib. 3, who fays, it is worth their while to hear it, who
defpife all human things, in comparifon of riches ; and think, that there can be no
place, either for great honour, or for valour and virtue, but where there is great affluence
of riches.

(7) Columella calls thefe four jugera of land, his pradiolum avitum-, as if they came to
him from his anceftors j which is contrary to whztFeflus fays, viz. That the Q}u\ntnn Mea¬
dows were fo called , from Quintus Cincinnatus, becaufe , after his Son vias condemned , he
fold all that he had , and purchafed four jugera of land beyond the Tybcr. They made
near two Englifb acres and a half.

The jugerum, which many of our Englijh tranflators render Acre , was much fmaller
than the Engti/h acre ; and it only impofes upon the reader, and gives him a falfe
idea of this meafure, to tranflate it thus ; fo that I think it better to retain the original
word, and give an explication of it in a note, than, by tranflating it Acre7 convey a falfe
potion to the mind of the reader.

The

6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

and Curius Dentatus (8) ; the one, after having driven Pyrrhus (9)
out of the confines of Italy ; and the other, after he had fubdued the
Sabines, did no lefs induftrioufly cultivate, than they had bravely
gained with their fwords, their dividend of feven jugera oflandaman,
which they received of the land they had taken from the enemy.

And that I may not now unfeafonably make mention of them one by
one, when I behold fo many other renowned and memorable Captains of
the Roman nation, who were always in great reputation for this two-
* fold ftudy j either of defending, or of cultivating, their paternal or
acquired eftates ; I perceive, that the antient cuftom, manners,
and manly life of our anceftors, are difagreeable to our luxury,
and voluptuous delicacy. For (as Marcus Varro (10) formerly com¬
plained in our grandfathers times) all we, who are majlers of fa¬
milies, having abandoned the pruning-hook , and the plough, have, in
a J'neaking manner, crept within the walls-, a?id rather move our hands
in the Circus (11) and Theatres, than in our corn fields and vine¬
yards : and with aflonilhment we admire the pollutes of effeminate
wretches ; becaufe, by their woman-like motions, they counterfeit

The 'Roman jugerum, as our author informs us, confided of 28,800 fquare feet,
whereas the Englifh acre confifts of 43,560 fquare feet, which is about a Roman jugerum
and a half; and, according to the neared computation, th t jugerum confids of 2 roods, 18
fquare poles, 250,05 fquare feet ; and the proportion it bears to the acre, is very near as
10 to 16 j and the Roman foor, according to the Englifb dandard, is 11,604 inches.

(8) Curius Dentatus , an. urb. 479. conquered Pyrrhus, and drove him out of Italy ,
and triumphed over him. Plin. Nat. Hifi. lib. 8. cap. 16. Floras, de Bello Tarentino
defcribes this war, vidtory, and triumph, very elegantly j and, lib. 1. cap. 18. fays, that,
Curius preferred his own earthen ware to all the gold of the Samnites ; and that Fa-
bricius rejected the offers of Pyrrhus , who would have made him Partner in the
Government, if he would have betrayed his country. Pliny fays, that they had but
one faltfeller, and the bottom of it was of wood.

Fabricius , when Cenfor, removed Ruffinus, a man of confular dignity, from the
Senate, becaufe he had ten pounds of plate, judging it great luxury j and forbid the
moft warlike Generals to have more filver plate than one goblet, and a faltfeller. In
thofedays, the Generals baggage coft the public very little, and was no great incumbrance
to the army. Plin. Nat. Hifi. lib. 23. cap. 12. Val. Max. lib. 4. cap. 3. The feven
jugera thefe two Generals poflefled, amounted to 4 f Englifij acres.

(9) Pyrrhus , King of Epirus , was called by the Tarentinians to their aftiftance againffc
the Romans : he fought with them feveral times very fuccefsfully, and reduced them to
very great danger.

(10) Marcus Terentius Varro has thefe words in his fecond book of Husbandry : he
was a famous philofopher and hiftorian, and reckoned the moft learned man among the
Romans. Befides his books de Re Rufiica, et de Lingua Latina , which are ftill extant, he
wrote forty-one books of Antiquities, and feveral other tra&s mentioned by feveral
authors. He lived a few years before Cicero.

( 1 1 ) The Oreo’s were places fet apart by the Romans , for the celebration of feveral
forts of games, generally of an oblong figure, walled round, with ranges of feats for the
conveniency of the fpedtators;

a lex

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. y

a fex which nature has denied to men ; and deceive the eyes of
the fped:ators. Then, prefently after, that we may come in good
plight to public places of riot and debauchery, we confume and
dry up our daily crudities in bagnio’s j and, by fweating out the
moiflure of our bodies, we endeavour to procure an appetite for
drinking; and fpend the nights in libidinous gratifications anddrunken-
nefs, and the days in gaming, or fleeping ; and account ourfelves
happy, becaufe we neither lee the riling nor the fetting of the fun.
Therefore the confequence of this idle and llothful way of living is bad
health : for thus the bodies of young men are fo unbraced, relaxed,
and enfeebled, that death will not feem to make any alteration or
change in them.

But, verily, that true and genuine progeny of Romulus , being con-
flan tly exercifed in, and inured to hunting, and no lefs to country
bulinefs and labour, excelled in, and were highly elleemed for their
exceeding great ftrength and firmnefs of body ; and, when the fervice
of their country required it, in time of war, they eafily fupported
the fatigues of a military life, being hardened by their laborious exer-
cifes in times of peace ; and they always preferred the country com¬
monalty, to that of the city. For, as they, who flill kept within
the inclofures of the manor-houfe, were accounted more llothful
and faint-hearted, than thofe who laboured the ground without
doors fo they who fauntered, and fpent their time idly within the
walls, under the lhade of the city, were looked upon as more lazy
and unadtive, than thofe who cultivated the fields, and managed
bulinefs relating to Hulbandry. It is alfo evident, that their ninth-
day Fairs or Markets (12), where they aflembled themfelves together,
were ellablilhed, and kept up, for this very purpofe, that city affairs
might be tranfadled every ninth day only, and rural affairs on the
other days. For, in thofe times, as we faid before, the people of
quality, and principal men of the city, lived in the country, upon
their own lands ; and when their advice about public affairs was
wanted, they were fent for from their villas, to attend the Senate ;
from which thing, they who were fent to fummon them were
called viator es[ 13); and while this cullom was obferved, and kept up,

(12) There was a Fair or Market at Rome every ninth day, for the country people to
meet and fell their goods, and tranfadt other bufinels in town ; fo that their Nandi me
were not idle days, but appointed for bufinefs.

(13) Viatores : It Teems by their firft inftitution they were to be Tent by the Senate to the
country, to fummon fuch as lived there, to attend the public fervice, and to condudt
them to town : afterwards they were a fort of Beadles, or Sergeants, who went before the
Tribunes of the people, and fotne other officers of leifer dignity.

8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

by a moil perfevering defire of cultivating their lands, thofe antient
Sabines (14), who became citizens of Rome ; and our old Roman an-
ceftors, tho’ expofed on every hand to fire and fword, and to have
their corns, and other fruits of the ground, wafted by hoftile incur-
fions, notwithftanding, laid up greater ftore of them, than we, who,
by the permiffion of a long-continued peace, have had it in our
power to inlarge and improve our Hufbandry.

Therefore things are now come to fuch a pafs, that in this La -
tium (iy) and country where Saturn lived, where the gods taught
their own children the art of cultivating the ground ; even there
we let, by public audtion (16), the importation of corn from our pro¬
vinces beyond fea, that we may not be expofed to a famine ; and
we lay in our ftores of fruits and wines from the Cyclad iflands (17),
and from the regions of Beetica ( 1 8) and Gaul. Nor is it any wonder,
feeing the vulgar opinion is now publicly entertained and eftablifhed,
that Hufbandry is a fordid employment ; and that it is a bufinefs

(14) The Sabines were a people of Italy , not far from Rome ; they occupied the
country that lies between Umbria-, Hetruria , and Latium , between the rivers Amen ,
Tiber, Nar, and Velino : A great part of that country ftill retains its antient name.
By a peace concluded with the Romans, the two people became united, and many of
the chief Sabine families removed to Rome.

(15) Latium , a country of Italy , a great part of it now called Campagva di Roma :
here Saturn retired, and concealed himfelf, when he was driven out of Crete, by his
fon Jupiter. And here, probably, Saturn afterwards reigned, as in fome other conti¬
guous parts, which from him were called Terra Saturnia.

(16) Locamus ad ha flam. A fpear was a fign and badge of power and authority
amongft the antients, and ufed upon feveral occafions ; and at all auctions public
and private, it was fet up to fignify, that they were done by a lawful commiffion.
Ad haflam & flub bafla •vendere , locate , fignify the fame thing. When Rome became
exceeding populous, they were obliged to import corn and wine from foreign parts \
and tho’ at firff, probably, it was imported at the public charge, yet, afterwards, when
the public advantage was not fo much regarded, as the raifing of money for fupporting
the power of the Emperors, certain undertakers paid a certain fum for liberty to import
it, and fell it at a certain price, as may be gathered from Suetonius and others. The
provinces commonly paid a certain quantity of corn, among other things, as a tribute,
•viz. the tenth part of their crop j and fometimes they were obliged to furnifh a
certain quantity of corn, at fuch a price as the Government thought fit : all this was to
be brought to Rome at a great expence, for which there would not have been a very
great demand, if they had cultivated their lands as they did formerly.

(17) Cyclades , iflands in ihe JEgcan fea, fo called, as Pliny fays in his Hat. Hi ft.
lib. 4. cap. 12. from their lying round Delos in a circular figure : they are, according
to him, fifty in number : He there gives an account of their extent, and diftances from
each other : they are now called the Iflands of the Archipelago.

(18) Bxtica, a part of Spain , containing Andalufla, and a great part of Grenada :
it is the fertileft part of all Spain : it has its name from the river Bcetis , which runs
thro’ the middle of it. Rliny fays, that it excelled all other countries in the richnels
of its foil, goodnefs of its culture, and in a certain gaiety and agreeablenefs peculiar
to i rdf. This river is now called the Guadalquivir.

which

Of HUSBANDRY. 9

which does not want the inflru&ion of a matter. Bat as for myfelf,
when I confider and review, either the greatnefs of the whole thing,
refembling fome vaftly extended body ; or the number of its parts,
as fo many members in particular ; I am afraid, left my laft day
fhould furprife me, before I can acquaint myfelf with the whole of
rural difcipline.

For he that would profefs himfelf to be perfect in this fcience,
muft be exceedingly well acquainted with the nature of things j
muft not be ignorant of the feveral latitudes of the world j that he
may be fure of what is agreeable, or what is repugnant, to every
climate j that he may perfectly remember the time of the riling
and fetting of the ftars, that he may not begin his works when
winds and rains are coming upon him, and fo fruftrate his labour.
Let him confider the temperature and conftitution of the weather,
and of the prefent year j for neither do they, as it were by a fettled
law, always wear the fame drefs ; nor does the Summer or Winter
come every year with the fame countenance : nor is the Spring always
rainy, nor the Autumn moifi : which I cannot believe any man can
know beforehand, without an enlightened mind, and without the moft
excellent arts and fciences.

Now very few have the talent to difcern the great variety itfelf
of the ground, and the nature and difpofition of every foil, what
each of them may promife or deny us. Yea, when has any one
man whatfoever had the opportunity to contemplate all the parts of
this art, fo as throughly to underftand the ufe, advantage, and
management of all forts of corns, and of tillage, and the various and
different forts of earth, moft unlike to one another ? of which, fome
deceive us by their colour, fome by their quality : and, in fome
countries, the black earth, which they call brown, or dufky, deferves
to be commended ; in others, that which is fat, and red-coloured,
anfwers better : in fome countries, as i nNumidia mAfrita , the rotten
fands furpafs, in fruitfulnefs, the flrongeft foil whatfoever ; in Afia
zn&MyJia (19), thick glutinous earth produces the greateft abundance
of any. And in thefe very forts, who is it that knows throughly
what a hilly fituation may refufe, and by his reafon finds out alfo
what a low plain fituation, what land that is cultivated, what woody
land, what moifi and graffy land, what dry and dirty, will either

(19) Myfia , a country in Leffer Afia, extending moflly weftward, towards the Hel~
lefpont. It was divided formerly into the Letter and Greater. Both parts arc now
called Natolia , fubjedt to the Turks.

c

yield

IO L.J, M. COLUMELLA Book I.

yield or refufe ? And who is it that throughly knows every thing
that is requijite in planting and preserving trees and vineyards, of
which there are innumerable kinds ; and in purchafing, breeding,
and keeping all forts of cattle ; fince we have alfo taken in this as a
part of Hulbandry ; whereas the Grader’s knowledge and Skill is
diflinCt and feparate from the art of Hufbandry ? Nor is this pafloral
knowledge of one fort only ; for horfe-cattle requires a way of
management very different from that of herds of oxen ; and fheep-
cattle different from thefe ; and even in this kind itfelf, the Ta-
rentinian (20), requires a different method from that which has
coarfe and hairy wool. The goat-kind requires a different treat¬
ment, and in this kind itfelf, that which wants horns, and is thin
of hair, is treated otherwife than that which has horns, and rough-
briflly hair, fuch as we fee in Cilicia (21).

Moreover, the bufinefs of a hog- or pig-feeder is different from
that of a fwineherd, and they have different ways of feeding : nor
do the fmooth-coated fwine, that have no hair upon them, and fuch
as are thick of hair, require the fame climate, or delight in the
fame hate of weather ; nor are they to be managed and brought up
after the fame manner. But not to infill any more at prefent upon
the different forts of cattle, under which denomination, and as a
part of which, the management of poultry, and of bees, is placed $
and what man has extended his fludy fo far, as to know, befides
the things I have already reckoned up, the fo many different forts
of ingraftings j the fo many different ways of pruning ; and to put
in practice the culture of fo many different forts of apple-trees, and
of pot-herbs, and of fo many different forts of fig-trees, fo as to
bellow his care upon Roferies alfo, when even greater things are neg¬
lected by molt people ? altho’ even thefe things have now begun to
bring in no fmall revenue to many. For meadow-lands, willow-
grounds, brooms and reeds, tho’ they require but fmall care and
induflry, yet they always require fome.

(20) Tarentum , in the kingdom of Naples, antiently a very famous city) commodioufly
fituated in the entry to the Adriatic. Floras fays it was built by the Lacedemo¬
nians j it was once the head of all Calabria , Apulia , and Lucania : it was fo powerful
as to make war with the 'Romans , with the afliftance of Pyrrhus , and many other
people3 at firft with great fuccefs j but at length was intirely defeated and fubdued.

(21) Cilicia , a very well-known country in Ajia Minor, bordering on Syria on the
eaft, Pamphylia on the weft, mount Taurus on the north) and the Cilician fea on the
fouth. It is now called Caramania , and fubjedl to the Turks.

After

Of HUSBANDRY. n

After this enumeration of fo many and various things, I am not
ignorant, that if, from fuch as concern themfelves with affairs of
Hulbandry, I lhall require all the qualifications of the Hulbandman
we feek for and defcribe, fuch as learn, will go on very {lowly in
their ftudies ; who, being terrified thro’ defpair of ever attaining to
a fcience of fo vaft an extent and variety, will not attempt what
they have no hopes of being able to obtain. Neverthelefs, as Marcus
Tullius has already faid very rightly, in his book de Oratore (22), That
it is Jit , that they who have an earnejl dejire diligently to fearch
after , and put together , things the mojl ufeful to mankind , and after
they have carefully weighed and confidered them , to publijh them to
the world , fhould try all things. Nor, if either that flrength and
excellency of genius, or the furniture, help, and affiftance of the
celebrated arts be wanting, ought we prefently to link into idlenefs
and floth, but profecute with perfeverance what we have prudently
hoped for. For affedting to be at the very top of our profeffion, it will
be honour enough for us, if we be feen in the fecond rank. Did not the
Latian mufes receive not Accius (23) and Virgil only (24), into the
moll fecret receffes of their temple, but bellowed the facred feats alfo
upon them that were next to them ; and even upon them that were far
from being next to them? Neither did Cicero'' s eloquence (25), which,
like lightning, bore down every thing in its way, deter Brutus and
Cceliusi Pollio , MeJJ'ala , and Catullus (26), from profecuting the fame

(22) Our author exprefles the fenfe, not the very words, of Tally, cap. 1. de Orat.

(23) Accius , a famous tragedian ; he flourifhed in the 615th year of Rome. Quintilian,
lib. 10. fays, that he and Pacuvius were in the higheft reputation, for the gravity of
their fentences, the weight of their words, and authority of their perfonages.

(24) Virgil, of all poets, either among the Greeks or Romans , deiervedly reckoned next
to Homer himfelf. He was in great favour with Auguflus , who faved his divine dEneid,
as he called it, from the flames ; he having at his death defired it might be burnt. Pliny
calls him Lux dottrinarum altera , alluding to Homer , whom he calls Fons ingeniorum.

(25) Cicero , thegreateft matter of eloquence, that ever Rome produced j juttly admired
in his own time, and in all ages ever fince 3 and mutt always be, as long as men have
any tafte for learning. He was called, not only the Father of Roman eloquence, but
the Father of his country, the great aflertor of its liberty, which he had often Paved,
and at laft died a vidfim to it, having been murdered by order of Marc Antony , whofe
ufurpations he had courageoufly withstood. He is fo well known, and his charadter fo
well deferibed by many authors, and efpecially his life fo elegantly written by the learned
Dr. Middleton-, thet it is fuperfluous to fay any thing here of fo great a man.

(2 6) Brutus , &c. Thefe were five famous orators, cotemporary with Tully. Brutus
was one of the confpirators againtt Julius Cafar , and, with CaJJins, endeavoured to reftore
the republic. We have an oration of Ciceros-, for this Ccelius. Afinius Pollio wrote an
lriftory of the civil wars, Horat. lib. 2. Ode 1. Prifcian quotes his annals in feveral
places. Suetonius in Aug. often mentions him. Virgil inferibed gn eclogue to him.
We have a letter of his to Tully, lib. 10. ad fam.

C 2 ftudjr.

2

12 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Bookl.

ftudy. For neither did the renowned Cicero himfelf, by being terri¬
fied with Demofihenes (27) and Plato's (28) thunder, give over his
purfuit : nor did the divine Homer (29), the father of eloquence,
with his mighty floods of eloquence, extinguifh the defires and ftudies
of them that came after him. Do we fee, that thofe artifts of leffer
reputation indeed, who, for many ages paft, were admirers of Proto¬
genes (30), Apelles (31), and Parrhajius (32), did abandon and give
over their labour ? Nor were Bryaxis (33), Lyfippus { 34), Praxite¬
les (35"), or Poly Actus, of the following age, fo aftonifhed at the beauty
of Jupiter OlympiuSj and of Minerva, by Phidias (36), that they had
not the courage to try what they could perform, or what length they
could come themfelves. But, in every kind of fcience, they who excel

(27) Demofihenes , a famous orator of Athens ; he was a hearer of Plato. Quintilian
fays of him, Pene lex ipfe dicendi fuit , The law or ftandard of eloquence.

(28) Plato , a renowned philolopher, and a very eloquent orator of Athens , fcholar to
Socrates. He was not content with the knowledge he acquired in his own country, but
travelled into Egypt, to acquaint himfelf with the learning of the priefts of that coun*
try j and into Italy, to converfe with the Pythagorean phiiofophers. He flourifhed in
the 98th Olympiad. His life is written by Marcilius Ficinus.

(29) Homer , the prince of poets, and Eons ingeniorum , as Pliny ftiles him, lived about
2700 years ago. Pliny, Hifi. Nat. lib. 7. cap. 1 6. fays, that he lived about 1000 years
before he wrote, which was in the reign of the emperor Vefpafian. It feems, his admirers
placed him among their gods : for we read of a temple he had at Smyrna : and our
author calls him, Deus ille Maonius. They fay, his father’s name was Meson , from
which he is fometimes called Maonius.

(30) Protogenes , a famous painter. He lived in Rhodes, was cotemporary with Apelles,
and yielded to none but him.

(31) Apelles , the prince of painters, lived in the time of Alexander the Great, who
would be painted by none but him. He was of the Ifland of Coos , and flourifhed in
the 1 T2th Olympiad.

(32) Parrhafius, as At hen# us fays, lib. 12. was born at Ephefus. The Athenians made
him free of their city. Pliny is very copious in the defcription and commendation of
their beft pieces, which were moftly purchafed in Greece * and brought to Rome.

(33) Bryaxis , a famous Athenian ftatuary, as Pau/anias fays, lib. 1. Attic , He was
employed by Artemifia, in building a tomb or monument to the memory of her husband
JMaufolus , king of Caria, who died about the 106th Olympiad. This tomb was reckoned
the moft perfect of its kind in the whole world.

(34) Lyfippus, a famous engraver and ftatuary, in the time of Alexander the Great*
who, as he would not fuffer any to paint him but Apelles , fo none to engrave him but
Lyfippus. Pliny, Hifi. Nat. lib. 34. cap. 7. fays, he finifhed 1500 pieces, all fo artfully
wrought, that any one of them might have made him famous. He was a Sicyonian *
and flourifhed in the 114th Olympiad.

(35) Praxiteles and Euphranor , both flourifhed in the 104th Olympiad *and Polycletus
the Sicyonian, in the 87th Olympiad, according to Pliny.

(3 6) Phidias, a famous fculptor. He flourifhed in the 84th Olympiad, about the 300th
year of Rome. He made a ftatue of Jupiter Olympius , of ivory and gold, which none
ever attempted to emulate 3 and one of Minerva , which, for its exquifite workmanfhip,
was called The Beauty , xccAA/pjip®', or ##AAir». Plin. lib. 34. cap. 8.

are

Of H U S B A N D R Y. 13

are admired and reverenced, and they who are of a lower clafs meet
with their deferved praife. ’Tis the very cafe here : What, fuppofe the
perfon, whom we defire to make a complete Hufbandman of, has not
attained to the perfection of his art, nor to the fagacity and knowledge
of Democritus (if), or Pythagoras (38), in univerfal nature ; or to
the forefight of Meton (39), or Eudoxus (4,0), from their knowledge
of the motions of the ftars and winds $ nor to the learning of Chi¬
ron (41) and Melampus (42), in the management of cattle j nor to the
prudence and {kill of Triptolemus (43) and Arifieus (44), in tilling
and cultivating the ground ? Neverthelefs, he will have made great
proficiency, if he be equal to. our <Tremelliussi Saferna's , and Sto¬
tts (4?) : for Agriculture is capable of being managed, neither with
too much delicacy and nicenefs ; nor, on the' other hand, in a grofs
and bungling manner : for that is far from being, true, which mofl

(37) Democritus-. , a famous philofopher of Aider a , a city of Tbracia. He travelled over
a great part of the world in quell of knowledge ; he was a hearer of Socrates , and a
patient of Hippocrates , who declared he was of a found mind, when his friends imagined
he was mad. He wrote of husbandry, and flourifhed in the 80th Olympiad. Diogenes
Laertius gives an account of his life and writings.

(38) Pythagoras , a very famous philolopher of Samos. After he had travelled into Chal¬
dea and Egypt , he came into Italy , and taught philofophy in that part of it called Magna
Gracia , where he had a vaft number of fcholars, who made a great figure afterwards in
the world. He was a man of fuch excellent morals, that he contributed much to
reform that, and other countries, from their favage and wicked difpofition and manners.
Diogenes Laertius fays, that he flourifhed in the 60th Olympiad.

( 3 9) Meton, a very antient philofopher ; he firll publilhed at Athens his ivvia.J'inatieiJla,
or cycle of the moon, of 19 years. See Diodor. Siculus , lib. 12. and PetaviiUranologia.

(40) Eudoxus , a very famous allronomer of Cnidus. He flourifhed in the 96th Olym¬
piad, and was a hearer of Plato. Laertius gives an account of his writings.

(41) Chiron , a famous allronomer and phyfician, of Thefialy : JEfculapius was his fcholar.
Pindar. Pyth. Ode 3. He was tutor to Achilles, and the inventor of phylic.

(42) Melampus , a famous diviner and phyfician of Argos’. Homer , Statius , and others
celebrate him. Pliny frequently mentions him, and fays, lib. 27. cap. 5. that one kind
of Ellebore is from him called Melampodion.

(43) Triptolemus , the inventor of the plough, and of Husbandry, according to Servius ,

Virg. Georg, lib. 1. cap. 163. He was the fon of Celeus , who reigned in Eleufin in
Attica. Ceres taught him the art of Husbandry. Vide Hyg. Fab.

(44) Arifieus, by Pliny and Diodorus , is faid to be the inventor of honey and oil.'

Vide Jufi. lib. 14.

(45) Tremellius, father and fon, Saferna, Stolo, famous Husbandmen, or writers upon
Husbandry, many years before Columella. Their writings are loll, but what was valuable in
them we have in our author.

This Stolo , probably, is the fame, who, having made a law, that no citizen Ihould

purchafe above 500 jugera of land, was condemned by his own law, having pur-

chafed 500 jugera in his fon’s name, Val. Max. lib. 8. cap. 6. Varro de re rufiica, lib. 1.
cap. 2. Perhaps he is the fame, who firft invented pampination, or cutting off the
fuckers and other fuperfluous branches of vines, &c. and was therefore called Licmius
Stolo. Stolo fignifies a fucker.

14 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

people have believed, that Hufbandry is exceeding eafy, and requires
no great penetration or fharpnefs of wit. There is no occafion, at
prefent, to difeourfe more of it in general, forafmuch as I am re-
folved to explain it, in all its parts, in fome diftinCt books, fepa-
rately 3 which I fhall profecute each in its own order, after I (hall have
fpoken firff of fuch things, as I think do principally belong to the
whole difeipline in general.

CHAP. L

Of the Rules which they , who would live in the Country , and
apply themf elves to Hufbandry , ought to follow .

LE T him, who applies himfelf to the ffudy of Hufbandry, know,
that thofe principal things following, and of the greatefl import¬
ance, muft be called to his affiftance : Prudence and knowledge of his bu -
Jinefs j ability to fpend and lay out ?no?iey upon it 3 and a willingnefs to a£t.
For, after all, as Tremellius fays, He will have the belt cultivated lands,
who both knows how to cultivate them, is able to do it, and has alfo a
willing mind. For, neither knowing nor willing can be of any ufe to any
perfon whatfoever, without thofe expences which the buiinefs requires :
nor, on the other hand, can a willingnefs to do , and to lay out money ,
be of any advantage, without art 3 for ’tis the principal point in all
buiinefs, to know what muft be done , efpecially in Hufbandry 3 in which
the willy and the ability to fupport the expences, without knowledge,
frequently bring Ioffes upon the landlords 5 fince works, imprudently
done, render all expences ineffectual. Wherefore a diligent matter
of a family, who has it at heart to follow a fure method of increafing
his fubftance, by the culture of his land, ought, above all things, to
be careful to advife with, and confult the wifeft Hufbandmen of his
own time, upon every thing 3 and fearch diligently the hiftories and
writings of the antients 3 and to confider the opinions, precepts, and
directions of every one of them ; and examine whether all the things,
which the antients have left us, upon record, are agreeable to the
Hufbandry of this prefent time 3 or if fome things are not difagreeable
to it.

For I have found, that, formerly, many memorable authors were fully
perfuaded, that by the long continuance of things in the fame ftate, the
quality and conflitution of the heavens, and of the air, are changed 3

and

Chap. I. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 15

and that Hipparchus ( i ), the wifeft profeiTor of aftronomy among
them, has left it us in writing, that the time would come, when the
poles of the world fhould be moved out of their place ; and Saferna ,
no contemptible author of Hufbandry, feems to have believed this alfo.
For in that book of Hufbandry which he wrote, and left behind him,
he brings this argument to prove, that the conftitution of the heaven
is altered j viz. that thofe countries wherein formerly no plants,
either of vines or of olives, which they fet in the ground, could be
preferved, becaufe of the continual violence and feverity of the win¬
ter, have now plentiful vintages, and abound both in wine and in
oil ; the former cold being now much abated, and the weather
become mild and warm. But whether this reafon be true or falfe,
let us yield it to aftronomical learning. But as to the other precepts
and rules of Hufbandry, we muft not diffemble with the Hufbandman,
nor conceal from him, that whereas the Carthaginian Writers from
Africa have delivered to us very many things relating to the fame,
yet our Hufbandmen find fault with many things they have written 3
and fhew us, that they are falfe. As Tremellius , for example, who,
complaining of this very thing, notwithftanding, excufes it, becaufe
the foil, air, and climate, of Italy and Africa, being of a dif¬
ferent nature, cannot produce the fame increafe, or yield the fame
plenty.

But whatever thofe things be, which, becaufe of the rural difei-
pline of our times, are not agreeable to the opinion or practice of the
antients, they ought not to deter the learner from reading. For,
with the antients, there are many more things which deferve to be
commended and approved by us, than to be rejected. Moreover,
there is a great multitude of Greeks , who lay down rules and precepts
for Hufbandry ; of whom the chief, that moll: celebrated poet, Hefiod
the Boeotian (2) has contributed not a little to our profeffion. After-
Wards, Democritus the Abderite , Xenophon (3) a follower of Socrates ,

(1) Hipparchus , a very famous aftronomer, of Nice, in Withy ni a. He flourifhed in the
154th Olympiad. Bliny fays, lib. 2. cap. 13. that he lived about two hundred years before
his time.

(2) Hefiod, a very antient poet. Some fay he was of Cuma in JEo'is, and afterwards
removed to Afcra a city in Boeotia, and hence called the Afcreasi Bard. Some fay,
he lived before Homer-, others fay, after. Vide Aul. Gel/, lib. 17. cap. 21. Yliny fays,
his book of H usbandry was loft in his time, and that he was the firft who gave precepts
upon that fubjedt.

(3) Xenophon , a great admirer and follower of Socrates, as we fee, by his Memorabilia
Socratis , among his other works. He was both a great Captain, and a great Philofopher. His
life is written by Laertius. He was in great reputation in the 95th Olympiad.

Ar chit as

ib L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

Architas (4) the Tarentinian , and thofe two Peripatetics, the m after
and the fcholar, Arijiotle and Pheophrajlus (5), who all fprung from
the fountains of wifdom, gave further afliftance to it.

The Sicilians alfo have profecuted this bufinefs with no ordinary-
care, Hieron (6), and Epicharmus his fcholar (7), Philometor , and
At talus (8). Athens alfo has produced a great number of writers, of
which the moft approved authors are Ch cere as, Arijlandros , Amphilo -
chus , Euphron ; Chrejlus the fon of Euphron , not,, as many think,
the Amphipolitan , who himfelf is alfo efteemed an excellent Hufband-
man, but he, who was a native of Attica.

The Iflands alfo greatly cultivated this ftudy, and had it in great
eftimation j as witnefs Epigenes of Rhodes , Agathocles of Scio, Ena -
gon and Anaxipolis of Phafus. Menander and Diodorus alfo, who
were of the fame country with Bias , one of the feven wife men, laid
claim, among the firft, to the knowledge of Agriculture. Nor did
Bacchius and Mnajfeas of Milejium , Antigonus of Cyme (9), Apollo¬
nius of Pergamus (10), Dion of Colophon , Hegejias of Marogna (1 i)t
yield to thefe. For, indeed, Diophanes the Bithynian (12) abridged,
and reduced into ftx books, the intire works of Dionyjius of Utica ,
who, in many volumes, had, in a very diffufe manner, interpreted

(4) Architas , a great Pythagorean philofopher, of Tarentum. He taught Plato Geome¬
try, who was born in the 4th year of the 88th Olympiad.

(5) Ariflotle and Theophrajlus , two well-known philofophers : The firft was a hearer of
Plato , when eighteen years of age, in the hundred and fifth Olympiad. The fecond flou-
rifhed in the hundred and fourteenth Olympiad, and had his name from his divine elo¬
quence, a divinitate loquendi , as Cicero fays.

(6) Hiero, or Hieron , was King of Sicily, a Prince of very great note : he reigned at
Syracufe in the feventy-fifth Olympiad. See Val. Max. lib. viii. c. 13. Pindar dedicates
fome of his odes to him.

(7) Epicharmus was of Syracufe, a great philofopher, and a poet, called Siculus vates
by Horace , lib. ii. ep. 1. a hearer of Pythagoras , he wrote carefully of medicines proper
for cattle, fays our author, lib.x.

(8) Philometor and Attalus. Our author makes them Sicilians , and two diftintft perfons ;
but Varro, lib. i. c. 1. feems to fay, that Philometor was only the furname of Attalus , he
being fo called from his dutifulnefs to his mother. We read of one Attalus, King of
Pergamus , who had the honour of being called amicus populi Romani , the friend of the
Roman people, to whom he left his Kingdom. Probably he is the fame i for he wrote
feveral curious pieces , fome of which, probably, were upon Husbandry.

(9) Antigonus was of Cyme in JEolis , therefore called Cymceus.

(10) Apollonius Per gamenus. The fcholiaft upon Nicander quotes him.

(11) Hegefias of Maronea , or Marogna , as it is now called, a city in Thrace , Vitru¬
vius, lib. viii. c. 4. as having, with infinite ftudy and care, explained the properties of
pi ces, and the virtues of waters.

(12) Diophanes • Varro calls him a Nicean, from Nice, a city in Bithynia. He dedicated
his Abridgment of Dionyfus of Utica to King Deiotarus, Varro , lib. i. c. 1. Suidas fays,
that Afnius Pollio epitomized them alfo in four books.

Mago

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 17

Mago the Carthaginian , and other, notwithflanding more obfcure
authors, whofe countries we have not been informed of, have contri¬
buted fomething to our ftudy : They are thofe following : Andro-
tion , JEjchrion, AriJiojnenes , Athenagoras , Crates , Dadis , Dionyfius ,
Euphyton , Euphorion (13). Nor with lefs fidelity have Lyjimachus
and Cleobulus , Menejiratus , Pleutiphanes , Perjis , Eheophilus , to the
utmofi: of their power, brought in tribute to us.

And that we may now at length beftow the freedom of the city of
jRflwe upon Hufbandry, (for as yet, by thefe authors, fhe was only of
the Greek nation) let us now make mention of the famous Marcus
Cato ihzCenfor (14), who taught her firlt to fpeak Latin ; after him,
of the two Sajerna’s (if), the father and fon, who inftrud:ed her more
carefully ; and, next, of Scrofa Eremellius (16), who made it eloquent ;
and of Marcus Terentius (17), who exactly polifhed and perfected
her ; and afterwards, of Virgil , who made her alfo mighty and power¬
ful in verfe. Nor, laftly, let us think it below us, to make mention
of Hyginus (18), who was, as it were, a Pedagogue to her. Never-

thelefs,

(13) Androtion , 8cc. Varro fays of all thefe, that he had not found what country they
were of : fo it is needlefs to trouble the reader any farther abouc them, feeing nothing
certain can be faid of them, moft of their writings being now loft : only we may ob-
fcrve how numerous the writings upon this fubjedt were, and how praifeworthy it was
of old reckoned, to have contributed never fo little to the improvement of it.

(14) Cato the Cenfor, a man of great reputation for learning and wifdom. Pliny, in his
Nat. Hip. fays, he was famous for his triumph and cenforfhip, but much more for his
learning, and the precepts he gave to mankind concerning every thing that might be the
object of their defire, efpecially agriculture, being, by the confeffion of the age he lived
in, the beft Husbandman ; and that there was nobody that pretended to equal him. He
was called Cenforius , for the remarkable feverity wherewith he exercifedhis office of Cen-
for. His whole life was a cenfure of the follies and faults of his fellow-citizens. He died,
as Pliny fays, the very year when Carthage and Corinth were taken, in the iotuh year of
Pome. Pliny wrote about two hundred and thirty years after him. He was an excellent
general, an excellent orator, and an excellent fenator. See his chara&er elegantly deferibed
by Liv. Dec. 4. Lib. ix. His book of husbandry is ftill extant.

(15) Sajerna, father and fon. Pliny fays, that they were the moft antient, and the moft
celebrated Husbandmen after Cato. Marcus Terentius Varro frequently quotes them. They
were of the Hoftilian family.

(16) Tremellius Scrofa was cotemporary with Varro, lib. i. c. i. who fays of him, Cuihcec
atas defert rerum omnium ruflicarum palmam , All owned his fuperior knowledge in Huf-
bandry. He was a General alfo, and commanded an army upon the Rhine.

(17) Marcus Terentius Varro, much celebrated by Tully, Pliny , and others, as the moft
learned man amongft the Romans. Befides his books de re rujlica, and de lingua Latina ,
which, though incorrect, are ftill extant, he wrote many books of antiquities, and of
feveral other fubjedts, which are all loft : He was born about the fix hundred and thirty-
feventh year of Rome , was cotemporary with Pompey , Cafar , &c.

(18) Caius Julius Hyginus was a native of Spain , and the Emperor Augustus's freedman,
and keeper of his library ; a great intimate of Ovid the poet. Some fay he was of Alex¬
andria , and brought by Ctefat to Rome after the taking of that city. He wrote feveral

D books.

18 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

thelefs, above all, let us pay the greateft veneration and refpeCt to
Mago the Carthaginian (19), the father of Hu {ban dry. For thofe
twenty-eight memorable volumes of his were, by a decree of the
fenate, tranflated into the Latin tongue. Neverthelefs, men of our own
times, Cornelius CelJ'us ( 20 ), and Julius Atticus (21), have deferved no
iefs Commendation. For Cornelius compril'ed the whole body of this
art in five books, and Julius Atticus publiihed one fingle book, of
one fpecies of culture relating to vines; whofe difciple, as it were, Ju¬
lius Grcecinus (22), took care, that two volumes of the like precepts,
concerning vineyards, which he had compofed in a more facetious and
learned ftyle, fhould be tranfmitted to pofterity.

Thefe, therefore, O Publius Silvinus , call to council, and advife
with them, before you make any contract with Hufbandry. Neverthe¬
lefs, be not of fuch a dii'poiition of mind, as to think, that, by their
opinions, you will obtain the whole of the thing you delire : for the
records, or memorials, which fuch writers have left, rather inftrud:,
than make an artift. In arts, uj'e and experience are mailers, and bear
the fway : nor is there any art whatfoever, where one may not learn
by committing millakes. For, when any thing, by wrong manage¬
ment, has turned out unfuccefsfully, we avoid that which has formerly
deceived us : and the inftruCtions of a teacher call a light upon the right
way. Therefore, the rules and precepts we lay down, do not promife
to bring this fcience to perfection, but to lend it a helping hand ; nor

books, which are loft; his ajlronomicum poeticum is ftill extant. Our author commends
him highly in feveral places, particularly in his ninth book, cap. 2.

(19) Mago, whom our author calls rhe Parent of Husbandry, wrote twenty-eight books
on this fubjecft in the Carthaginian language. Dionyfius of Utica tranflated them into
Greek , and lent them to the praetor Sextilius. He was a great captain ; and the Homan
fenate, after the raking of Carthage , paid fo great honour to him, that they ordered his
books to be tranflated into Latin , and committed the work to fuch as were moft skil¬
ful in the Carthagmian language, Pliny, Nat. Hijt. lib. xviii. c. 4 Where he fays, that
among foreign nations it was reputed a princely employment, to deliver precepts con¬
cerning the cultivation of the ground, as Hieron , Archelaus , Xenophon , Mago, and fevc-
ral others did.

(20) Cornelius Celjus flourifhed in the time of the Emperor Tiberius. He was called the
Latin Hippocrates for his great learning in phyfic. His books on that fubjedf, ftill extant,
fufficiently evidence his great ability in that learned profeflion. Quintilian fays, lib. xii.
c. 11. that he not only gave precepts of eloquence and hiftory, but alfo of the art of

war and husbandry.

(21) Julius Atticus was cotemporary with Columella.

(22) Julius Gracinus was father to Julius Agricola, whofe life we have, written by Taci¬
tus. He was of the fenatorian order; remarkable for his ftudy of eloquence and wifdom;
and, by his virtues, drew upon himfelf the indignation of Caligula. Seneca de beneficiis,
lib. ii. t.2i. has a very remarkable expreflion : tc Julius Gracinus, an excellent perlcn, whom
“ Caligula flew for this very reafon, becaufe he was a better man than it was expedient for

a tyrant any one fhould be.”

will

CIiap.il. Of HUSBANDRY. ig

will any perfon, purely by having read over the rules we have pre¬
ferred, become an adept in Agriculture, unlefs he have both a willing
mind, and a heavy purfe to put them in pra&ice : wherefore we pro-
mife, that they will be as helps only to fuch as ftudy this art ; but will
be of no ufe by themfelves, but in conjun&ion with other things. Nor,
indeed, will either thefe affiftances, as we faid before, nor conftant
labour, the experience of the Bailiff, nor plenty of money, and a heart
to lay it out, have fo powerful an influence, as the mailer’s own pre¬
fence alone ; for unlefs he himfelf come often, when leaf! looked for,
while bufinefs is doing, as in an army, when the general is abfent,
all bufinefs is at a Hand, and duty is neglected. And I verily believe,
that Mago the Carthaginian pointed out this to us, by beginning his
writings with fuch fentences as thofe : “ Whoever has a mind to pur-
“ chafe land, let him fell his houfe, left he rather chufe to live in his
“ houfe in town, than in that in the country. He, who takes greater
u delight in his houfe in town, will have no occafion for a manor in
“ the country.” Which precept, if it could be obferved in thefe
times, I would by no means change.

Now, forafmuch as civil ambition often calls moft of us from the
country, and oftener detains us, when we are called from it ; confe-
quently I think, that an eftate near the city is moft commodious, that
fo a man, how bufy foever he may be, may be able to make an ex-
curfion every day, after the public bufinefs is over. For they, who
purchafe lands at a diftance from town, not to fpeak of thofe be-
yond-fea, yield up their eftate6 to their fervants, as if they were their
heirs ; and, which is worfe, they do it in their own life-time : for
certain it is, that they are not only corrupted and debauched by their
mafters being at fo great a diftance from them ; but, being once cor¬
rupted, expecting that, after the flagitious actions they have committed,
others will be fent in their room, they apply themfelves more to plun¬
dering and rapine, than to Hufbandry.

CHAP. II.

Of the moft approved Jituation and qualities of laitd.

THerefore I am of opinion, that land ought to be purchafed near
the city, where the owner may frequently come, and alfo give
out, that he will come oftener than he really intends. For, under this

D 2 apprehenfion.

20 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

apprehenfion, the Bailiff and the fervants will be in their duty j but,
whenever he has an opportunity, let him flay in the country, and not
pafs the time he flays there in idlenefs and eafe, and lolling in the fhade,
or keeping within-doors. For it becomes a diligent mafler of a family,
frequently to go round every corner and inch of his own land, and at
all times of the year, that he may the more wifely confider the nature
of the foil, either in the boughs and leaves of trees, or in the grafs and
herbs, or in the fruits of the ground, when they are come to maturity ;
and not be ignorant of what is right and proper to be done in it: for that
is an old faying, and of Cato, ’That that land is fcurvily ufed, whofe
owner does not teach nor direB what ?nu{l be done , but hears his Bai¬
liff (i). Wherefore, let it be the chief care of one, who either pof-
feffes lands of inheritance from his anceflors, or who is about to pur-
chafe them, to know, what kind of ground is molt approved of, that
he may either be without what is unprofitable, or purchafe that which
deferves to be commended. And, if fortune fhall favour and aflifl our
defires, we will have land in a wholfome air, a fertile and rich foilr
partly champain, and partly on little hills, gently declining to the eafl,
or to the fouth ; with fome parts of the ground cultivated, and other
parts woody and rough ; nor far from the fea, or a navigable river, by
which the fruits of it may be exported, and all forts of commodities
imported.

Let the champain part, divided into meadows, and arable lands,
willow- and reed-groves, lie below the houfe. Let fome of the hills
be void of trees, that they may ferve for corn only, which never-
thelefs thrives better in moderately dry and fat champain lands,
than on high and fteep places. Therefore the higher corn-lands alfo
ought to have fome level parts, and be of a gentle and eal'y defcent,
and as like a champain fituation, as poffible. Then, let other of the
hills be cloathed with olive-yards and vineyards, and copfes for pro¬
ducing props for fupporting vines, and afford wood and done, if ne-
ceffity forces you to build ; as well as pafture for cattle : and let fprings
of conflantly-running water fend down rivulets into the meadows, and
gardens, and willow-groves : nor let there be wanting flocks and
herds of great and fmall cattle, and other forts of four-footed hearts,
feeding upon both the cultivated ground, and the thickets. But this
fituation, which we defire, is difficult and rare to be found, and falls to
the fhare of very few. That fituation is next to it, which has mofl

(i) This anrient faying is not in Cato in fo many words, as we now have him j only
let not the Bailiff think himjelf viifer than his Mafter.

Of

21

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY.

©f thefe qualities : and that is tolerable, which has not a very few of
them.

CHAP. III.

Of fuch things as are principally to he confidered , in viewing
and examining Land , before it be bought .

POrcius Cato (i), indeed, was of opinion, that there were two
things chiefly to be considered, in examining and purchafing of
land, the wholfomenefe of the air, and the fruitfulnefs of the place j
of which if either the one or the other Should be wanting, and not¬
withstanding any one Should have a mind to dwell there, he mufl:
have loft his fenfes, and ought to be conveyed to his kinsfolk, to take
care of him . For no man in his fenfes ought to lay out money in
cultivating a barren foil : nor, on the other hand, can the owner of a
peSlilentious, though very fertile and fat land, live to partake of the
fruits thereof j for, where one mufl: lay his account to be expofed to
certain danger, there, not only the reaping the fruits, but the life alfo
of HuSbandmen, is dubious • or rather, death is more certain than get¬
ting money.

After thefe two principal things, he farther added thofe following,
as no lefs neceflfary to be examined and confidered ; viz. the road,
the water, and the neighbourhood. A convenient road contributes
much to the advantage of lands. The firSt advantage, which is the
greatefl; of all, is the owiler’s own prefence, who will come there the
more willingly, if he is not afraid of being plagued with the badnefs
of the road. The next is, the conveniency for importation and export¬
ation of all forts of utenflls ; which thing increafes the value of Such
fruits of the ground as we lay up in Store, and leSTens the charge of the
things we bring home: for they may be carried, with lefs expence,
to places, where one may come without much trouble or fatigue,

(0 Porcius Cato has not thefe very words, but the fubftance of them; and thofe words,
ad cognatos eir ge?ttiles deduceiidum, are taken ouc of V lrro, and are agreeab:e to the law
of the Twelve Tables, which deprived prodigals and madmen of the management of their
eftates ; and by them 'the antients fignified, that a man was mad, or had loft his fenies.
TheR oman lawyers fay, that the agnati were relations by the father’s fide, and that the
gentiles were thofe of both father and mother j and to them the commUlion of lunacy, as
we term it> was granted.

Nor

22 L. J. M. COLUMELLA ' Book I

Nor is it of fmall advantage to be carried cheap, if you make ufe
of hired horfes when you travel, which is more expedient, than to keep
horfes of your own. The fervants alfo, v/ho are to follow the mafter
of the family, will not with reludtancy begin their journey on foot.

As to the goodnefs of the water, that is a thing fo manifeft to every
body, that there is no occafion to inlarge upon it ; for who can have
any doubt, but that that water is to be accounted the belt, and the
moft approved, without which none of us can prolong his life, either
in health, or in flcknefs ? As to the conveniency and advantage of a good *
neighbour, this is, indeed, what we cannot have any certainty of.
Sometimes death, and divers other caufes, common to him and us
change him : and therefore fome people reject Cato’s opinion, who
neverthelefs feem to be mightily miftaken. For, as it becomes a wife
man, with great courage and refolution, to fupport accidental misfor¬
tunes, fo it is acting like a madman, for one to make a bad fortune
for himfelf ; which that man does, who, with his own money, pur-
chafes a wicked neighbour, fince, from the very cradle, if he be de-
fcended of free-born parents, he might have heard, that No man would
lofe his ex, if neighbours were not naught ( 2 ) -, which is fpoken not
only of an ox, but alfo of every other part of our eftate : fo that many
have rather chofen to be without dwelling-houfes, and have fled from
their own habitations, becaufe of the injuries of their neighbours :
unlefs we think, that it was for fome other reafon, that whole nations
have abandoned their native foil, and gone to a different part of the
world, I mean the Achceans (3), the Hiberians (4), the Albanians (y),
as did alfo the Sicilians (6) ; and, that I may touch upon our own
original, the Pelafgians ( 7), .the Aborigines (8), the Arca¬
dians j

(а) This line is taken oat of Hefiod.

-(3) Thofe Achaans here mentioned Teem to be a .people of that name, who, Pliny,
lib. vi. fays, inhabited the utmoft or eaftmoft parts of the Euxine fea, whom our author
fuppofes to have fled out of Greece , becaufe they were oppreffed by their neighbours, and
-ftill retained the name of their country. t

(4) Hiben, a people of A[ia , who are fuppofed to have left their native country, and
to have come into Spain, to which they gave the name of Hiberia. It is commonly writ
Iberia.

(5) The Alba7ii were alfo a people of AJia, and contiguous to the Iberi.

(б) The Siculi were a people of Latium, who went over to Sicily, fettled there, and
■gave their name to that Aland.

(7) Pe/afgi, a people of Greece, who of old came into Italy, and fettled in Umbria ,
.and other places. Pliny fays, they fettled alfo in old Latium.

(8) Aborigines were alfo originally of Greece. They came over, and fettled in Latium .

* Aurelius Vitlor fays, they were called Aorigines, a Greek name, from their inhabiting the
tops of mountains. Others fay, they were called Aberrigines, wanderers or vagabonds ;
^nd} by changing one letter, and leaving out another, they were afterwards called Abori¬
gines.

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 23

dians ($) j than becaufe they could not endure their wicked neigh¬
bours.

And, that I may not fpeak of public calamities only, hiftory has
given us an account of fome private perfons alfo, both in the coun¬
tries of Greece , and in this very Italy itfelf, who were deteflable
neighbours: unlefs that the famous Autolycus (10) could be a tolera¬
ble neighbour to any one ; or that Cacus (11), who inhabited mount
Aventine brought any joy to his neighbours, that dwelt upon mount
Palatine (12). I rather chufe to make mention of things that are
part, than of the prefent, that I may not name my own neighbour,
who does neither fuffer a tree of any confiderable length to hand upon
our ground, nor a nurfery, without hurting it, nor any thing of a
flake or prop to fland tied to a vine, nor even the cattle to go out to
paflure, unlefs there be one to watch them ; fo that it was with very
good reafon, as far as I can judge, that Marcus Porcius thought, that
fuch a peft ought, by ail means, to be avoided, and, among the firfl
things, forewarned him, that was determined to be an hufbandman,
not to come near to it of his own accord.

To the other precepts we add that which one of the feven wife
men delivered to poflerity for ever : A meafure is bejl : that a mea¬
sure, a due proportion , or bounds , ought to be obferved and kept in
all things. And let that be underflood as fpoken, not only to thofe,
who are going about other bufinefs, but to thofe alfo, who are about
purchafing land ; that they would not buy what is of a greater extent,
than the calculation they have made of things will bear. For, to
this, has a reference, and is applicable, that excellent and famous
fentence of our own poet (13)3 Commend large fields , but cultivate
what's fimall which antient precept, handed down to us, that mofl
learned man, in my opinion, pointed at, and expreffed it in verfe; for,
it is a faying worthy of the Carthaginians , a mofl acute people, that
the land ought to be weaker than the Hujbandman j for fin ce, of necef-

gines. They, with other ftrange people, were the root, as Fliny fays, from whence the
Roman people fprang.

(9f The Arcadians , a people of Teloponnefus , fenc alfo colonies into Italy, fome of
which fettled in Latium.

(10) Autolycus , a famous robber, frequently mentioned by Homer, as grandfather of
U/yjJes, by his mother.

( 1 1) Cacus , a famous cow-ftealer, who dwelt on mount Aventine. He {hole Hercules’s
cattle, as he palled that way, for which he knocked out his brains, Livy, dec. 1. lib. i.
Virgil , in his JEneid, lib. viii. gives a beautiful defeription of him, and makes him a great

monfter.

(12) Two of the feven hills on which the city of Rome is built.

(13) V'irg. Georg, lib. ii. 412

24 L. ]. M. COLUMELLA Book I

fity, he muft wreflle with it, if the ground prevail, the owner muft be
crafhed to pieces : nor is it to be doubted, but that land of a large
extent, not rightly cultivated, will yield lefs, than that of a narrow
extent, exceedingly well cultivated. Wherefore, after the expullion
of the Kings, thofe feven jugera, which Licinius (14) the Tribune of the
people, dillributed to each man, yielded a greater revenue to the an-
tients, than our largeft fields, which lie fallow, do now. Indeed, Cu¬
rias Dentatus (15), whom we mentioned a little before, having, by his
iuccefsful condudi, obtained a vidtory, when the people, as a reward
of his excellent valour, bellowed fifty jugera of land upon him, thought,
that it was a greater ellate, than was fuitable, either to one that had
been Conful, or that had had the honour of a triumph : and, having
refilled this public reward bellowed upon him by the people, he con¬
tented himfelf with the fame proportion the common people enjoyed.

Afterwards alfo, when our victories, and the utter dellrudtion of our
enemies, had laid defolate, and fubdued, a vaft extent of land ; yet it
was criminal in a Senator to have above fifty jugera (16) in his own pof-
fefiion : and Cains Licinius (17) was condemned by his own law, be¬
caufe he had by an immoderate defire of inlarging his ellate, exceeded
that meafure which he had fettled and promulgated during his magi-
flracy, having brought in a bill for that purpofe, when he was Tribune
of the people, and palled it into a law : and this was done, not more
becaufe it was a fymptom of pride and ambition, to take up and oc¬
cupy fo much place, than becaufe it was infamous and difhonourable,
that a Roman citizen Ihould, by poflefling, in a new and unprecedented
manner, more ground than his patrimony enabled him to cultivate,
abandon thole lands, which the enemy, by running away, had laid

(14) Liciniasta jugera. Varro , lib. i. cap. 2, fays, that this diftribution was made three
hundred and (ixty-five years after the expulfion of the kings, which was in the year of
the city 244. fo that this dividend of land was made in the 609th year from the building
of Rome. We read alfo of a distribution of feven jugera per man, made by a decree of
the fenate, after the conqueft of Veit , Tit. Liv. dec. 1. lib. 5.

(15) Curius Dentatus was created Conful, for the firft time, in the year of the city 463.
He refufed the prefent the people offered him ,• 3nd, as Pliny, in his Nat. Hijl. lib. 8.
*ap- 3. fays, in a fpeech he made, affirmed, that he wasa pernicious citizen, that could not
tie content with feven jugera of land ; which was the quantity allowed to the common
people, after an end was put to monarchical government.

(16) Columella fays, that the quantity of land allowed by the Liciman law, was only fifty
jugera ; but he mufl be corre&ed by Varro , lib. 1. c. 3. Livy, Dec. 1. lib. 7. and Plin.
Nat. Hijl. lib. 18. c. 3. who all have five hundred jugera.

(17) Cains Licinius Stolo was Tribune of the people in the year of the city 387. To
elude the law, which he himfelf had made, he emancipated his fon ; and, as has been faid,
nut 50 o jugera in his name, over-and-above what he poflefled and held in his own name.
He was accufed by Popilius Lanas the Conful3 condemned^ and feverely fined. Val. Max.
lib. 8. cap. 6. Liv. Dec. 1. lib. 7.

y wafte,

Chap. IV. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 25

wafte, and left without inhabitant. Therefore, as in all other things,
fo alfo in purchafing lands, a tneafure mu ft be obferved : for fo much
ought we to endeavour to obtain, as is neceflary to make it appear, that
we havebought what we ourfelves might enjoy, not wherewithal we might
be burdened ; and to take away the enjoyment of them from others,
after the manner of thofe over-mighty men, who poftefs the bounds of
whole nations, which they are not indeed able to go round on horfe-
back, but leave them to be trampled upon by cattle, and wafted and de-
ftroyed by wild beafts, or keep them occupied by citizens that are indebted
to them (18), and their chained flaves, where they are both confined,
and put to hard labour. But every man’s own moderate defire, capa¬
city, and eftate, will be a meafure to him. Nor indeed is it enough,
as I faid before, to be determined to have lands in your pofteflion, if
you are not able to cultivate them.

CHAP. IV.

Of the Wholfomenefs of Countries.

THE precept given us by Ccefo (i), comes next to be confidered,
which Cato is alfo faid to have made ufe of ; •viz. That they
who are about to make a purchafe, ought often to review the land
they have a mind to purchafe. For, at firft view, it neither difcovers
its faults, nor its hidden good qualities, which afterwards more eafily
fhew themfelves to fuch as confider, and look over it again and again.
Alfo our Anceftors have left us a formula , as it were, of infped:ion
and examination of land that is fat and fertile j of the quality of which
we fhall fpeak in its own place, when we come to treat of the feveral

(18) It was a cuftom amongft the ’Romany to have their creditors delivered up to them;
whom they kept in cuftody, and obliged them to hard labour ; and Tent them to their
eftates in the country, to cultivate the ground, and improve their lands, as they did many
of their flaves. And this reftraint and confinement of fellow-citizens for debt, the Roman/
called nexus civium , which frequently occafloned many complaints and difturbances in
the ftate, from the cruelty and hard-heartednefs of creditors : neverthelefs, it rauft cer¬
tainly be much more eligible, to be put to labour the ground, in a wholfome air, with
food and raiment, than to ftarve and rot in a {linking prifon.

(1) Caifonianum praceptum. Who this Cafo was, I find not. There were feveral great
men of this name, about the year of the city 275, and afterwards. Some of them, no
doubt, were men of knowledge in Husbandry, and their precepts preferved to pofteriry.
Cato has the fame precept in a few words equivalent : Think it not enough once only to go
round the land you defign to buy, lib. i. cap. 3.

E

kinds

26 L, ]. M, COLUMELLA Book l.

kinds of land (2). Neverthelefs, in general, that which I have, as it
were, to teftify, and frequently to declare and publifh to all the world,
is, what that mod; renowned Captain, Marcus Attilius Regulus (3), in
the fir ft Carthaginian war, is reported to have faid, That as we mufl
not purchafe land, even fuppofe of the fruitfulleft foil, if it be un-
wholfome ; fo neither muft we purchafe what is barren, though it be
never fo wholfome. Which ad vice Attilius gave with greater authority
to the Hufbandmen of his own time, as he had acquired fkill by expe¬
rience. For hiftories tell us, that he dwelt in Pupinia (4), where the
land is both peftilentious, poor, and unfruitful. Wherefore, as it is
the part of a wife man, not to purchafe every-where ; nor to be de¬
ceived, either with the allurements of its fruitfulnefs, nor with the
neatnefs, compadtnefs, or delightfulnefs of the place ; fo it is the part
of a truly induftrious mafter of a family, to make fruitful and profit¬
able, whatever he has either purchafed, or otherwife got into his pof-
ieflion. For our anceflors both prefcribed, and left upon record, many,
remedies for an unwholfome air, whereby its infectious deftruCtive
influence might be allayed; and, in lean and barren land, the pru¬
dence and diligence of the Hulbandman may overcome the barren-
nefs of the foil. Thefe things we flhall certainly be able to accomplifh, ,
if we will believe, and receive, as from an Oracle, what the trueft
Poet ever lived fays (y) r

“ Take care to learn before, and to obferve,

“ The winds,, and changing temper of the air, .

“ The foil, and native genius of each place,

“ What fruits it bears, and what it will refufe. ”

Neverthelefs, let us not content ourfelves with the authority of Huf¬
bandmen, either of former; or of the prefent time, and overlook or
negledt our own examples, and the new experiments we fhall have
made ; which, tho’ in fome particulars it is detrimental,' yet, upon the
whole, becomes gainful to us ; becaufe there is no land that is culti¬
vated, but yields fome profit : at the fame time, by attempting and-'
making trials, the proprietor of the land gains this point, that it is

(2) Lib. ii. cap. 2.

(3) Marcus Attilius 'Regulus was Coaful in the year of- the city 459.

(4) Pupinia, a place in Latium , near Tufculum , of which Varro gives a frightful account;.

lib. i. tap. 9. “ In it were to be feen, neither tall trees, nor fruitful vines, nor the Mari-

“ f“*n fig-tree, nor thick ftraw ; and that moft of the trees and meadows were withered

and dried up, and overgrown with mofs. ”

(5) Virgil Georg, lib. i. 42.

gra-

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 27

gradually formed, and brought to the belt ftate and condition it is ca¬
pable of, and to yield all that it poftibly can. This thing alfo improves
and makes the moft fertile lands turn to greater advantage : therefore
we muft never ceafe to make variety of experiments. Alfo we muft
be more daring, and hazard more, in a rich fat foil, becaufe the effetft
will neither fruftrate our labour, nor our expences.

But as it is of great imporrance, what kind of ground, and after
what manner we cultivate j fo alfo, after what manner the manor-houfe
is built, and how advantageoufly it is fttuated and difpofed : for hiftory
informs us, that many have greatly erred in this point, as thofe moft
excellent men, Lucius Lucullus (6), and Quintus Sccevola (7) ; of which,
the one built a greater, and the other a fmaller villa than the extent
of their land required, both which extremes are hurtful to a man’s
eftate. For we are not only at greater charges in building large and
wide houfes, but alfo it cofts more to keep them in repair : and
when they are fmaller than the ground requires, the fruits of it perifli
and decay. For both moift and dry things, which the earth produces,
are eafily fpoiled, if either there are no houfes at all to bring them into ;
or if, by being too ftreight, they are inconvenient. For a mafter of a
family, in proportion to his eftate, ought to have as good and conve¬
nient an habitation as poftible, that he may the more willingly both
come into the country, and alfo live in it.

It will alfo be more agreeable to the man, if his wife alfo accompany
him : and as her fex, fo alfo is her mind more delicate ; wherefore
fhe muft be allured and engaged with fomething pleafant and agree¬
able, to ftay the more patiently with her hufband. Therefore, let the
Hulbandman build elegantly ; neverthelefs, let him not be a Builder 5
and let him take in fuch an area for his building, that, as Cato (8) fays,
neither the villa may feek for land, nor the land feek for a villa. We
{hall now explain what manner of fituation the whole of it muft have.
The building which you begin, as it ought to be placed in a wholfome
region, fo alfo in the wholfomeft part of the country. For the fur-

(6) L. Lueullut, a very famous Roman General, who conquered Mithridates , King of
Pontus , and drove him into Armenia. He undercook thac war anno urb. co?id. 680.
After he returned with immenfe riches, he gave himfelf up intirely Co luxury, magnificent
buildings, <&c. He exceeded all the Romans in ftatues, pi&ures, villas, &c. He was at
immenfe charge in making fifii-ponds at Baia, near Naples. His land could fcarcely con¬
tain his buildings. Qn the contrary, Quintus Scatvola had fo fmall a villa , that he had not
where to beftow the fruits of his land.

(7) Q^Mucius Scavola was famous for his knowledge in the civil law, and for his elo¬
quence i mentioned by Cicero, lib. ii. de Or at. He was killed by Marius, in the civil wars.
There was one of this nameConful, an. urb. 659.

(8) Cato, lib. i. cap. 3.

E 2

roundino-

0

28 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book T.

rounding air, when it is corrupted, brings very many caufes of hurt
and offence to our bodies. There are fome places, which are not very
hot about the time of the fummer folftice ; but, in the colds of winter,
have a dreadful appearance, and are intolerably cold, as they fay of
cTheba in Bceotia { 9). There are other places, which are warm in
winter, but burning hot in fummer, as they affirm is the cafe of Chal¬
ets in Eubcea (10). Let therefore a temperate air be fought for, which
is neither exceffively hot, nor cold; which fort of air commonly the
middle of a hill enjoys, becaufe neither being depreffed, is it torpid
with the hoar-frofts in winter, or torrid with hot vapours in fummer ;
nor being elevated to the tops of the mountains, does it rage, at all
times of the year, with the motions of the winds, and with rains,
when below they are very gentle. This fituation therefore upon the
middle of a hill is the belt ; provided neverthelefs, that the place fwell
out, and be prominent a little, left a torrent, formed by the fhowers,
when it flows from the top of the hill, fhake or pluck up the foun¬
dations.

CHAP. V.

Of Water .

AND let there be either within the manor-houfe a fpring that
never dries up, or let it be brought into it from without. Let
wood for fire, and forrage, be near at hand. If running-water can¬
not be had, let well-water be fought for hard-by, which may neither
lie too deep, and be difficult to draw, nor be of a bitter or brackilh
tafte. But if thefe alfo fail you, and the fmall hopes of fpring-water
force you, let large cifterns, after all, be provided for men, and ponds
for cattle, for gathering and keeping rain-water, which is the moft
proper and fuitable to the health of the body ; and this you may have
exceeding good, if you convey it, in earthen pipes, into a covered

(9) Bceotia , a country in Greece , bordering upon Attica, of a foggy unwholfome air,
but good for cattle. The inhabitants were, by the antients, reckoned dull and ftupid.
The chief city of it was Thebes, now called Stiles-, and a fmall village. Bceotia borders upon
Doris, Phocis , Attica, and Corinthus, now called Stramu/ipa, and fubject to the Turks.

( 10) Euboea, an ifland eaft of Achaia in Greece , now called Negroponte , feparated from
Achaia by a narrow Tea ( Euripus ). Its chief city is Chalcis. They fay it is about 130
miles long, and 30 broad. It was long fubjedt to the Venetians ; but now in the hands
of the Turks. The Euripus is now called the Str eight of Negropont, and is fo narrow, that
Euboea is joined to Achaia by a bridge.

ciftern.

Chap. V. O/HUSBANDRY. a9

cittern. Next to this is running-water, which has its fource upon the
mountains, provided it tumbles down headlong over the rocks, as at
Guarcenum (i) in Campania. Well-water is the third, either that
which is found upon riling ground, or not in the loweft part of the
valley. The wortt of all is marlh-water, which creeps and Hides along
with a flow motion. That which always ftagnates in a marlh, is pefti-
lent j neverthelefs this fame water, tho’ of a hurtful nature, yet, in
winter, being foftened and allayed by the ftiowers of rain, abates of its
bad quality : from which we underttand, that rain-water is exceeding
wholfome, becaufe it alfo purges out the pernicious quality of poifonous
water (2) : but this we have faid to be the moft approved for drinking.
But rivulets, that have a ttrong current, and a fall, contribute very
much to moderate the heats, and to the delightfulnefs of places, which,
if the fituation of the place will allow it, whatever quality they may
have, provided they be fweet, ought, by all means, in my opinion, to
be brought into the villa.

But if the river be at a greater diftance from the hills, and if the
wholfomenefs of the place, and the higher fituation of its banks, {hall
allow you to place your houfe upon the current, neverthelefs you mutt
take care, that it have the river rather behind than before it and that
the front of the building be turned from the troublefome and hurtful
winds peculiar to that country, and turned towards thofe that are moft
friendly j for moft rivers are covered and hid from you with hot mitts
in fummer, and with cold mitts in winter, which, unlefs they be car¬
ried off by the greater force of the winds that blow upon them, prove
dettrudtive both to men and cattle. But, as I faid, in fuch places as
are wfiolfome, it is bett to turn the front of the manor-houfe towards
the eaft or fouth ; and, in fuch as are unwholfome, towards the north.
And a villa looks always rightly to the fea, when it is beat upon and

(1) Guarcenum in Campania. There is no mention of this place by Pliny-, or any other
author I have feen. Probably there is an addition or tranfpofition of one or two letters.
Pliny mentions feveral times Mons Ganrus, and vinum Gauranurn in Campania. This
mountain lies near to Bai^e or Puzzuolo ; and, on the tide of the hill looking towards thcfe
places, there is excellent wine j fo that our author perhaps means fome town that flood
near this hill, and took its name from it.

(2) Rain-water, by moft authors, is accounted the wholfomeft. Vitruvius fays, that
the lighteft and moft fubtile particles are extracted from all the fountains, and carried up
into the air, by the conftant motion of which, it is agitated, ftrained, and liquefied ,• and
then it falls to the earth. Hippocrates , Galen, ^cz. commend it, becaufe it is light, fweet,
clear, and thin. Some authors fay, that fummer rain-water, which falls in time of thun¬
der, is better than that of common fhowers ; and that water of melted fnow or ice is the
worft of any. Cornelius Celjus ranks them thus, with refpedb to their weight; rain-water,
fpring- water, river-water,1 2 well-water; next to thefe, that of fnow and ice; that of a lake
is weightier, and of a marfh is heavieft of all.

fprinkled

2

3o L, J, M, COLUMELLA Book I.

fprinkled with the waves thereof, but never from the bank, or when it
is a little removed from the fhore: for it is better to have fled back to
a great than to a fmall diftance from the fea; for the intermediate
diflances are of a groffer air. Nor indeed muft there be a marfh near
the buildings, nor a public highway adjoining : for the former always
throws up noxious and poifonous fleams during the heats, and breeds
animals armed with mifchievous flings, which fly upon us in exceeding
thick fwarms ; as alfo fends forth, from the mud and fermented dirt,
envenomed pefts of water-fnakes and ferpents, deprived of the moifture
they enjoyed in winter; whereby hidden difeafes are often contracted,
the caufesof which, even the phyficians themfelves cannot thoroughly
underftand : and alfo, at all times of the year, the dampnefs and moi¬
fture rots and fpoils the implements of hulbandry, houftiold furniture,
and the fruits of the ground, that are either laid up in ftore, or not as
yet brought into the houfe. And the latter is a burden to your eftate,
by the plunderings of travellers that pafs by, and the conftant enter¬
tainment of thofe that come to lodge with you.

Wherefore I advife you to avoid thefe inconveniencies, and to build
a manor-houfe neither by the highway, nor in a peftilential place, but
at a great diftance from them, and upon a higher fituation ; and that
the front of it be directed to the riling of the fun at the time of the
equinox ; for this kind of fituation keeps an equal balance, and a well-
ad ju fled medium between the winter and fummer winds. And the
more declining towards the eaft the ground is, 'on which the building
ftands, the more freely will it receive the cool palling breezes in fum¬
mer, and be lefs incommoded or hurt with ftorms in winter, and fo be
thawed with the riling fun, that the frozen dews may melt : for that
ground is reckoned almoft peftilential, which is not within the reach
of the fun, and not expofed to breezes warmed with the fame ; which
if it want, there is no other thing of any efficacy to dry up and wipe off
the noCturnal hoar-frofts, and any fort of ruft, mildew, or filth, that
fixes upon it. And thefe things are not only deftruCtive to men, but
alfo to all forts of cattle, and to every green thing whatfoever, and to
their fruits.

But whofoever has a mind to build upon a Hoping area, let him
always begin at the lower part ; becaufe when the foundations are
begun from the more deprefled place, they will not only eafily fupport
their own fuperftruCture, but alfo ferve as a butteridge and under¬
propping againft fuch things, as fhall afterwards be applied to the upper
part, if peradventure he has a fancy to inlarge the villa : for the build¬
ings that have been raifed before from the lower part, will powerfully

refill

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 31

refift and bear up againft thofe that, being placed above them, fhall
lean and reft upon them. But, if the uppermoft part of the riling
ground, being made the foundation, lhall have received the weight of
its own fuperftru&ure, whatever you join to it afterwards from the
lower part, will become full of clifts and chinks ; for a new building,
when it is built and joined to an old, and that which is frelh to what
is fulhof chinks j it, as it were, ftruggling ' againft the weighty load
that prefles upon it, gives way ; and that, which was firft built, will
prefs upon that which gives way, and, being gradually weighed down,
will be pulled down headlong with its own weight. Therefore this
fault, in the way of building, . muft be avoided when the foundations
are firft laid (3).

C H A P. VI.

Of the Pofition and Difpoftion of a Manor-houfe, •

ALSO let the meafure, fize and number, of the feveral parts of
the villa be proportioned to the whole inclofure (1), and let it
be divided into three parts 5 one for the ufe of the city, another for
the ruftics, and a third for the fruits of the ground. Again, let that
for the city be diftributed in fuch a manner into fummer and winter
apartments, that the bedchambers for winter may look towards the
fun-rifing in the middle of winter; the dining-rooms to the fun-fetting
at the time of ' the equinox. Again, let the fummer bedchambers be
fo contrived, as to receive the fun at noon at the time of the equi-

(3) The laft fentence of this fifth chapter is fomewhat perplexed ; and, as Ur/inus fays,
it feems neceflary to change furgenti into urgently in order to make it tolerable fenfe>
which I wifh were juftified by fomegood manufcript.

(i) Whole inclofure (univerfo, confepto) fignifies the whole ground taken in and inclofed
to build the villa upon. Thefe villas, among the Romans , while their ancient (implicity
lafted, were but very mean buildings* Ample accommodations for their fervants, and
receptacles for the fruits of the ground, and afmall apartment for the matter and1 miftrefs
of the family, <&c. But, as their riches and luxury increafed, they became much more
magnificent; and a fumptuous and magnificent villa feems to have been the darling plea-
fure, even of the wifeft and moft moderate among them : fo that they Teem to have
expended more upon their houfes in the country, than they did upon thofe in the city:
And even private citizens, when Rome was, in a manner, miftrefs of the world, feem to
have exceeded moft of our modern princes in the circumference, architecture, magnifi¬
cence, and conveniencies of their villas. And when thofe of private perfons were fo
/lately, what muft thofe of more eminent ftation have been, as that of Maecenas, Lucullusy
Cicero, 8c c. ? As for thofe of the Cafars , &c. fo frequently mentioned by antient authors,
they were, no doubt, beyond what we can imagine.

nox $

32 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

nox (2) ; but let the dining-rooms of that feafon look to the fun-rifing
in winter. Let the bathing-places be turned towards the fun-fetting
in fummer, that they may be well lighted in the afternoon, and till
the evening. Let the places for walking in be fo lituate, with refpedt
to the fouth, that they may receive much fun in winter, and very
little in fummer.

But, in the ruilic part, there fliall be placed a large and lofty kitchen,
that the timber-work may not be expofed to the danger of fire, and
that all the fervants belonging to the family may flay in it conveniently
at all times of the year. Cells for fuch fervants as are not in bonds (3),
will be beft contrived, when they are made to look to the fouth, fo as
to receive the fun at the time of the equinox ; and, for fuch as are
in chains, a moft wholfome fubterraneous prifon-workhoufe ( 4 ),
receiving its light from very many narrow windows, and fo high
from the ground, that one may not be able to touch them with his
hand (5). • .

Such

(2) Spettet meridiem aquinottialem. As the meridian of a place isi the fame through¬
out the whole year, and, when the fun comes to that line, it is ftill the fame with refpedt
to the houfe; yet, as the fun rifes higher and higher upon that line, till it comes to the
folftice, fo here the author muft mean, that the bedchambers be fo contrived, as to receive
the fun when it comes to the meridian at the time of the equinox.

(3) Servis folutis. The Romans fuffered fuch of their flaves as they had confidence in,
and were not apprehenfive of their running away, to be without chains ; but fuch of
them as they feared might make their efcape, they kept in chains, and fhut them up at
night : others of them were put in chains for crimes, and kept prifoners as long as they
thought proper.

(4) Ergafiulum , among the Romans , was a fubterraneous building belonging to every
confiderable villa. It properly fignifies a workhoufe; but it was made ufe of as a prifon,
wherein they confined their flaves at night, that they might not make their efcape; and
therein they fhut up, and kept to hard labour, fuch of their flaves as were guilty of any
misbehaviour. Thefe private prifons foon became great grievances, and great complaints
were brought againft them in Auguflus and Tiberius’s time, not only becaufe of the great
cruelty of mafters, but becaufe Roman citizens and ftrangers were unlawfully fhut up and
detained in them ; for which reafon thefe private prifons were intirely fupprefled by Adrian ,
and other fucceeding Emperors.

(5) Farro, l. i. c. 11, 12. gives the following directions relating to the building of a
villa: c A villa muft be built proportionable to the land belonging to it, that there may be

< room for laying up the fruits thereof in their feveral ftorehoufes, which muft be contrived
‘ according to the quantity of each fort of fruit. If your land abound in wine, your wine-
‘ cellars muft be the larger; if in corn, your barns. You muft efpecially take care, that
‘ there be water within the inclofure of the villa ; if not, as near as, poffible. The firft

* thing is to have it fpringing up within the villa; the next is to have it conftantly running

< into it. If there be no living-water, cifterns muft be made within doors for men, and

< ponds in the open air for cattle. You muft take care efpecially to place your villa at the
‘ bottom of a hill covered with wood, where there may be wide paftures ; and that it be
» expofed to the moft wholfome winds that fhall blow in that country. That which is

* placed toward the rifing of the fun at the time of the equinox, is the moft convenient,

‘ becaufe

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 33

Such ftables muft be made for the cattle, as cannot be incommoded
either with the heat or the cold. Let there be double ox-ftalls for
cattle broken for labour, one for fummer, and one for winter. But
for other forts of cattle, which, it is proper, fhould be within the
manor-houfe, let there be places, partly covered, partly in the open
air, furrounded with high walls, that, in the one, they may take their
reft during winter, and in the other in the fummer-time, without being
expofed to the fury of wild beafts. But let all the ftables be fo ordered,
that no water may run into them; and that all the moifture that is
formed and gathered therein, may Aide out as quickly as pofiible, that
neither the foundations of the walls, nor the cattles hoofs, may be rot¬
ted and fpoiled. The ftalls for the oxen muft be ten, or at leaft nine,
feet broad. This meafure will be fufficient both for the cattle to lie
down in, and for him that yoketh them, and driveth the plough or the
wain, to go round them, and do what offices are proper to be done to
them while unyoked. It is not proper, that the mangers be placed
higher, than that an ox or an horfe may be able to feed ftanding with¬
out inconveniency.

Let there be an habitation made for the Bailiff hard-by the gate,
that he may have a view of them that go out and come in ; and one
for the Steward (6) above the gate, for the fame reafons ; neverthelefs
let him be near to, and have his eye upon, the Bailiff (7): and let them

both

< becaufe in fummer it has the fhade, in winter the fun. If you are forced to build hard-
‘ by a river, take care you do not place your villa fronting to it, becaufe, in winter, it

< will be vehemently cold; and, in fummer, not wholfome. You muft alfo advert, if there
« be any marfhy places near it, both for the reafons before-mentioned, and becaufe they
‘dry up; and certain fmall animals breed therein, which the eyes cannot perceive; and

* they come through the air, and enter into the body by the mouth and noftrils, and occa-

< fon dangerous diftempers. And care muft be taken, that the villa look not towards thofe
t parts, from whence unwholfome grievous winds ufe to blow ; and that you place it not

< in a hollow valley, but rather build upon an eminence ; for, where there is a thorough

* air, if any thing noxious is brought in, it is more eafily difeufled. Moreover, that which

< is illuftrated by the fun the whole day, is more wholfome; becaufe the little beafts, if
« any breed near ir, and are brought into it, are either blown out of it again, or foon perifh
t by the drinefs of the place. Sudden fhowers and torrents, or rapid rivers, are dangerous

< to thofe, who have houfes in low and hollow places; and the fudden incurfions of bands

< of thieves and robbers, becaufe they can more eafily furprife thofe who are not aware of
‘ them. From thefe inconveniencies the higher places are fafeft.’

(6) Procurator , no doubt, is the Steward ; and, according to our author, he is to have
a watchful eye over the Bailiff, and confeauently a fuperior officer ; tho’ Popvia fays he
is focius villici , & omnibus rebus adminijler. He kept the family accounts, and thofe of
the whole eftate. The name is applicable to a great many different things, of which a
man may have the overfight committed to him.

(7) Villttus properly was an officer, who had the direction of cultivating the ground,
and employing the fervants for that purpofe, according to their feveral capacities; and to
ice that they did their bulinefs, had their victuals, cloaths, &t. duly given them. He was

F an

t

34. L. j. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

both have a magazine lvard-by, where all the implements of Hulbandry
may be laid up. Let cells be placed for the Herdfmen and Shepherds
hard-by their own cattle, that they may have the conveniency of rally¬
ing out eaflly at any time to take care of them. Neverthelefs they
ought all to lodge as near to one another as poflible, that fo the dili¬
gence and care of the Bailiff may not be too much extended, when he
goes round all the different parts ; and that they may be witneffes-
among themfeives of each other’s diligence or negligence.

As to that part appropriated for the fruits of the ground, it is divided
into an oil-cellar, a place for the wine and oil-prefles, a wine-cellar, a
piace for boiling mud: (8), hay-lofts, draw and chad-lofts, dorehoufes,.
and barns, that f'uch of them as are even with the ground may be ufed
for keeping of moid tilings, as wine and oil for the market ; but that
fuch things as are dry may be gathered together, and laid up in lofts,
as all forts of corn, hay, leaves, draw, chaff, and all the other forts of
forrage. But let the granaries, as I Laid, be acceflible only by ladders;
and let them receive air from the north, by very fmall windows; for
that quarter of the heavens is the colded, and the lead moid of any ;
both which contribute much to the prefervation of corn laid up in gra¬
naries. There is the fame reafon for the wine-cellar’s being placed in*
the lower part of the houfe, which ought to be at a great didance from
the baths, oven, dunghil, and other nadinefles, which fend forth a
dinking fmell ; nor ought it to be at a leffer didance from ciderns,
cafcades, or fpouts of water, from which there is a moidure attra&ed,
which corrupts and fpoils the wine.

Nor does it efcape me, that there are fome who think, that a barn,
covered with an arched roof, is the bed place for laying up corn in,
the ground or earthen floor of which, before it is paved, or any other
flooring laid upon it, being dug up, and moidened with frefh lees of
oil, and not with what has fait in it, is beat clofe together with ram¬
mers, like Signinian work (9). Then, after it is fully dry, they cover

an officer of great truft among the Romans, efpecially thofe who applied themfeives to
agriculture. He had the overfight and cave of the whole villa.

(8) Defrutarium was the place where they boiled their muft, in order to reduce it to
one third, or an half, of the firft quantity. The firft they called defrutum , the fecond
fapa, according to our author, lib-, xii. e. 21. Of this muft, boiled in to a certain quan¬
tity, or rob of grapes, as I'fbmetimes call it, the antients made great account: they mixed
it with their wines, in order to preferve and keep them from fpoiling; they preferved
their fruits with it, and, as may be feen in this author, applied it to feveral ufes.

(9) S'grtia, a town in 'Latium. The inhabitants were called Signini. They, it feems,
contrived a plaifter or flooring made with bruited tiles, or fheards of earthen veffels, and
>tme, tempered together. With this compofition they made very durable floors, &(.
and this they called opus Sigvtnum. See Vim. vat. hifl. lib. x.xxv. cap. jz.

k

Chap. VI. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 35

it over, in like manner, with floorings made of bruifed tiles, which,
inftead of water, have been tempered and wrought with lees of oil,
mixed with lime and fand, and which, with great force, are beaten
down with rammers, and fmoothed ; and all the joinings of the walls
and the floors are buttoned with bolfterings made of bruifed brick or
tile: for, as buildings commonly crack and fall into chinks in thefe parts,
they afford holes and lurking-places for fubterraneous animals. But
the granaries are alfo diftinguifhed with partitions or corn-bings, that
every fort of pulfe may be placed feparately by itfelf. The walls are
plaiftered with clay well wrought with lees of oil, with which, inftead
of ftraw, are mixed the dry leaves of the wild olive ; or, if thefe can¬
not be had, thofe of the olive-tree. Then, when the forefaid plaifter
is dried, it is fprinkled over again with the lees of oil ; and, after it is
dried, the com is brought in. This feems to be the moft proper of
any thing for preferving corn, or any other fruits of the earth whatso¬
ever, that are laid up in ftore, from receiving hurt from wevils, and
fuch-like animals, which, unlefs they be carefully laid up, are quickly
confumed by them.

But this kind of barn, which I have deferibed, unlefs it be Situated
in a dry part of the manor-houfe, corrupts, with mould inefs and damp-
nefs, even the ftrongeft grain whatfoever. And, if there be no moi-
fture there, corns may be alfo kept in pits under-ground, as in certain
provinces beyond fea, where the ground, being dug up after the man¬
ner of wells, which they call Jiros (io), receives the fruits which itfelf
produced. But we, in our regions, which fuperabound in moifture,
rather approve of fuch a barn as is raifed high above-ground, and of this
careful way of making the floors and the walls of it ; for, as I faid
before, the floors and fides of the barns, being thus Secured, hinder
the wevil to get in. Many think, that, when this kind of deftrudtive
peft gets into the corn, it may be thrown out, or checked, if the corns
that are gnawn, be winnowed in the barn, and, as it were, cooled and
refrelhed. But this is intirely falfe ; for, by fo doing, thofe animals
are not thrown out, but are mixed with the whole heaps of corn ;

(10) Siros , in Greek aifls, fubterraneous granaries, or caves for holding corn, or holc^
dug in the ground. Some think it is originally a Per fan word. Farro , lib. i. e. 57. fays,
that they were in ufe in Cappadocia. and Thrace , and that they made ufe formerly of fuch
repofitories for their grain in forae parts of Spain-, and about Carthage • that rhey covered
their bottoms with chaff and ftraw, and took great care, that no moifture fhould get into
them, or the air reach them, except when they brought them out for ufe ,• for, where
no air comes, the wevil does not breed. Wheat, he fays, laid up in this manner, will
keep even forty years without fpoiling; and millet a hundred. He adds, thar, when they
open them, they muft ftay fotne time before they go down into them, for fear they be.
ftifled.

F 2 which.

36 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

which, if they continue as they are, without being moved, only fuffer
damage in the upper parts, becaufe the wevil never breeds below th&
{pace of an hand-breadth ; for it is much better to expofe that only
which is already fpoiled, than the whole, to danger : for, when you
have occalion to ufe it, it is eafy, after you have taken away that which
is damaged, to make ufe of that which is lower, and altogether found.
But tho’ I may feem to have mentioned thefe things out of their proper
place, yet I have not done it unfeafanably.

The oil and wine-prefies, and the oil-cellars efpecially, ought to be
warm, becaufe every kind of liquor is more ealily diflolved or kept
fluid with a gentle heat, and is more bound up and congealed with cold.
Oil, if it freezes, which feldom happens, will grow mufly, and cor¬
rupt. But as natural heat is wanted, which is procured by the fitua-
tion and the climate, fo there is no occafion for fire, or the flame of a
candle, becaufe the tafte of the oil is fpoiled by fmoke and foot : for
which reafon the oil-prefs ought to receive light from the fouth quarter,
that fo we may be under no neceflity of making ufe either of a fire or a
lamp, when the olive-berries are prefled.

Let the caldron-room, where your fodden wine, or rob of grapes,
is made, be neither narrow nor dark, that fo the fervant, who has the
charge of boiling it down to a certain quantity, may go about his bufi-
nefs without inconveniency. The fmoke-room alfo, wherein wood,
that has not been long cut, may be fpeedily dried, may be made in the
ruftic part of the manor-houfe, joining to the ruftic baths ; for thefe
are alfo neceflary for the fervants to bathe in, but only upon holydays^
for the frequent ufe of them is, by no means, proper for {Lengthening
the body.

Repofitories or ftorehoufes for wine will be rightly placed above
thofe places, from whence, for the mofl part, fmoke arifes ; for wines
grow old more quickly, and attain to early maturity, by an uninter¬
rupted communication of fmoke to them : for which reafon there ought
alfo to be another loft, whither they may be removed, left, on the
other hand, they be tainted with too much fumigation. As to what
relates to the fituation of the manor-houfe, and the difpofition of the
feveral parts thereof, enough has been faid.

Moreover, it is neceflary, that thofe things alfo be about a manor-
houfe j an oven and a mill, of fuch bignefs as the number of the future
inhabitants {hall require ; two ponds at leaft, the one for the fervice of
cattle, and for geefe j the other in which we may fteep lupines, wil¬
lows, rods, and other things, which are proper for our occasions. Let
there be alfo two dunghils, one which may receive new off-fcou rings

and

Chap. VII. Of HUSBANDRY.

and filth, and keep them a whole year ; and a fecond, from which the
old may be carried. But let both of them have their bottoms fome-
what (helving, with a gentle defcent, in the manner of ponds, both
well builfand paved, that they may not let the moidure pafs through j
for it is of great importance, that the dung retain its drength by the juice
of it not being dried up j and that it be continually foaked in liquor,
that fo, if there be any feeds of thorns or gralfes thrown into it, with
draw or chaff, they may perifh, and, when carried out into the fields,
not fill the corns with weeds. Wherefore fkilful Hufbandmen, what¬
ever fweepings they carry out of the folds or (fables, they put hurdles
made of rods upon them, and cover them, and don’t fuffer them to dry
with the winds, or be burnt up with the violent heat of the fun.

The thrediing-floor, if it can be conveniently done, mud be fo
placed, that the Mader, or the Steward at lead, may look down from
his apartment into it. That is the bed which is paved with flint, be-
caufe the corns are both quickly beaten out, when the ground does not
yield to the beating and thumpings of the hoofs of the cattle, and of the
thrediing-indruments ; and alfo when the fame are winnowed, they
are cleaner, and without dones and fmall clods of earth, which com¬
monly a threfhing-floor, made of earth, throws up during the threfh-
ing. And there ought to be a died built adjoining to the threfhing-
floor, efpecially in Italy, becaufe of the incondancy of the weather,
into which the corn, that is half-threfhed, may be carried, and dieltered,
if a fudden (hower fhould unexpectedly happen: for, in fome countries
beyond-fea, where there is no rain in dimmer, there is no occafion for
this. The orchards and gardens mud be inclofed or walled round, and
be near at hand, and in that part, into which all the dung and dirt of
the poultry-yard and bagnios, and the rotten lees fqueezed out of the
olive-berries, may flow ; for both the pot-herb and the tree is made
glad and thrives with this kind of nourilhment.

CHAR VII.

Of the Offices of a Mafter of a Family +

AFTER the owner has got into his pofTefiion all thefe things,
either ready prepared to his hand, or has put them into this
order and condition himlelf, as in all other things, fo principally with,
relpetd to men, his own chief care is requifite ; and thefe are either

farmers^

^8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

farmers (i), or fervants loofe or kept in chains. Let him treat his
farmers with civility, and fhew himfelf eafy and gentle towards them,
and more greedily exacft their work than their payments from them.;
becaufe this is both lefs offenfive to them, and, upon the whole, is of
greater advantage ; for, where land is carefully cultivated, for the
moft part, it brings gain, and never any lofs (except when ftorms and
tempefts ( 2), or the outrageous violence of robbers, furprife them);tthere-
fore the farmer dares not demand an abatement.

But neither ought the landlord to be tenacious of his own right in
every thing to which he has bound his tenant ; fuch as in exacting pun¬
ctual payment upon the very days the money becomes due, and wood
and other additional duties, over and above his rent, the care of which
brings greater trouble than expences to peafants. Nor indeed muft
we exaCt all that the law allows ; for the antients thought, that the
rigour of the Jaw was the great ef opprejjion and venation : nor, on the
other hand, muft we intirely give up our claim and right, becaufe even
the beft of debtors, as Alphius the ufarer (3) is reported to have faid
yery truly, hecome bad, by not being called upon to make their pay¬
ments. And I myfelf have heard Lucius Volujius (4), an antient man,
who was Conful in our memory, and a very rich man, affirm, that
that landlord’s eftate was the moft -happy, which had tenants that were
natives of it, .and, by a long familiarity, even from their very cradles,
always retained them, as if they had been bom upon their own pater¬
nal inheritance. And indeed it is my opinion, that frequent letting of
the ground is a bad thing; but that neverthelefs a farmer that lives in
town is the worft, who chufes .rather to cultivate land by his fervants,

( x) The Romans frequently -lett their lands to freemen, who either paid them in kind,
or in money, fo much yearly ; or they gave them a certain allowance for their labour,
and the landlord had the remainder. Sometimes they cultivated them by their •Haves,
under the care and dire&ion of a Bailiff, as has been already mentioned.

(2) Unufual ftormy tempeftuous weather was, by the Romans., called vis major cceli.
The Greeks called it £5? J whereby they fignified, that ftorms of wind, hail, lightning,

. which prove deftruAive to the fruits of the ground, are calamities fent by Heaven
for the punifhment of mortals. And it may be remarked, as an inftance of the equity
of their laws, that, in the opinion of.their greaceft lawyers, when the fruits of the earth
were thereby more hurt than the tenant was able to bear,' he was not to fuftain the lofs;
non debet conductors ejfe damnofa, leg. 19. digejl. tit. 2. locati conduCli. The landlord, I
fuppofe, not only doli. his rent for that year, but alfo maintained his tenant, if all was
fwept away, as frequently happens in thofe countries.

(3) Alphius , a famous ufurer, whom Horace mentions in his fecond epode; a man who
underftood his own intereft mighty well, and how to place his money to the belt. advan¬
tage.

(4) Lucius Volujius Saturnisms was Conful in the year of the city 808. He is called
Quintus Volujius in the F ajli. He is feveral times mentioned by Tliny, particularly lib. vii.
c. 14, & c. 48. as having lived to a very. great age.

5 than

Chap; VII. Of HUSBANDRY. 39

than by himfelf. Saferna ufed to fay, that, from fuch a man as this,
inffead of your rent, you have commonly a iaw-fuit : for which reafon
we mull: be at fome pains to retain people that live conftantly in the
country for our farmers,, and fuch as may continue with us, when
either we are not at liberty to cultivate our land ourfelves, or that it
is not expedient to do it by our fervants ; which neverthelefs does not
happen but in thofe regions, which are uninhabited and defolate, by
reafon of the badnefs of the air, and the barrennefs of the foil. But
when the air is tolerably wholfome, and the land tolerably good, it
never happens, that every man’s own care does not bring him in more
from his land, than that of a farmer; nor does it ever happen, even
luppofe you commit it to a Bailiff, unlefs either the greateft negligence
or rapacioufnefs of the fervant intervene ; both which crimes, there is
no manner of doubt,, are, for the molt part, either committed or che¬
rished by the mailer’s fault, feeing he has it in his power to beware
either not to fet fuch a perfon over his affairs, or to take care to remove
him after he has appointed him.

Neverthelefs, in lands that lie at a great diftance, to which a maffer
of a family cannot eafily make excurffons, it is more tolerable to have
any kind of land in the hands of farmers, that are freemen, than of
Bailiffs, that are flaves,, but efpecially corn-land, which a farmer can¬
not at all deffroy,.and turn topfy-turvy, (as he may do vineyards, and
plantations of trees for fupporting vines) and which fervants do great
mifchief to, who lett out your oxen to hire, and feed both them and
the other cattle very forrily - nor do they carefully plow the ground ;
and charge to your account much more feed fown, than what they
have really fown. But neither do they affiff what they have committed
to the earth, in fuch a manner, as that it may yield a good increafe.
And, when they have brought it into the threfhing-floor, while they
are threfhing it, they daily leffen it, either by their knavifh tricks or
negligence ; for they both ffeal it themfelves, and negledl to keep it
fafely from other thieves. Neither do they faithfully bring to their
account what they have laid up in ftore. So it comes to pafs, that both
the agent and the other fervants are tranfgreffors, and the land is
often defamed and decried. Wherefore I am of opinion, that a manor
of this kind ought to be lett, if, as I faid, it muff be deprived of the
prefence of the landlord.

CHAP.

40

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book L

CHAP. VIII.

(i) Of Cattle , and of Herdfmen and Shefherds} and fuch as

have the Overfight of Cattle.

TH E next care is concerning fervants, what office or bufinefs it
may be proper to fet fuch and fuch of them over, and to what
works to deftinate each of them : therefore I premoniffi, that we take
care not to inftitute and appoint a Bailiff out of that kind of fervants,
who have pleafed with their body ; nor indeed of that order, who have
exercifed any city-trades, or delicate crafts. This kind of flaves is
fluggifh and fleepy, accuftomed to eafe and idlenefs, fports and divert¬
ing fights in the Campus Martins , the Circus , and the Theatres j to
dice, tipling-houfes, and common ftews ; and they never ceafe to dream
of the fame follies, which when they have transferred into Huffiandry,
the mafter does not fuftain fo much lofs in the fervant himfelf, as he
does in his whole affairs.

One muff be chofen, who is hardened to rural labour and bufinefs
from his infancy, and is well known by trials of his capacity. Never-
thelefs, if you have no fuch perfon as this, let one of thofe be fet over
your affairs, who have undergone a laborious fervi tude; and he mud be
of fuch an age as to be paft the prime of his youth, but not as yet upon
the borders of old age ; left the firft lefien his authority to command,
feeing thofe that are more advanced in years think it below them to
obey a ftrippling ; and left the fecond fuccumb under the weight of a
moft laborious employment. Let him be therefore of a middle age, of
firm ftrength, fkilful in rural affairs, or at leaft a perfon of the greateft
diligence and care, that he may learn the more quickly : for it is not
the way to forward our bufinefs, that one fihould command, and an¬
other teach ; for he is, by no means, capable of exacting and feeing
work rightly done and finifhed, who learns, from one that is fubjedt
to him, what, and in what manner it muft be done.

Alfo one that is illiterate, provided he have a very tenacious memory,
may do the bufinefs conveniently enough. Cornelius Celfus fays, that
a Bailiff of this ftamp oftener brings money to his mafter, than his
book j becaufe, not knowing letters, he may be lefs able to forge,

(1) The title of this chapter is very improper, there being no mention therein either of
cattle, or of thofe that take care of them; but only of the Bailiff" and his office, and the
care and attention that a mafter of a family ought to beftow, both upon him and his other
fervants.

contrive,

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 4r

contrive, and frame accounts by himfelf, or may be afraid to do it by
another, becaufe he will be privy to his villainy. But whatever he be
who is your Bailiff, you mufl aflign him one of your women for a
mate to live with him, that fhe may reflrain him, and yet be a help
to him in fome things.

The fame orders mufl be given to the Steward or Agent, that he
may not have any intimate correfpondence with any of the domeflics,
and much lefs with a flranger. Neverthelefs, if he fhall know any
one of them to be active and forward in managing and difpatching bu-
finefs, let him condefcend to admit him fometimes to his table, upon
an holiday, as a mark of his refpedt. Let him offer no facrifices but
by the order and direction of his mailer. He fhall not admit into the
houfe any diviners or cunning-women ; both which kinds of perfons,
with their vain fuperflition, drive ignorant and unexperienced minds
to expences, and afterwards to flagitious pra&ices. Neither fhall he
know any thing of the city, or of any fairs or public markets, unlefs it
be in order to buy or fell any thing belonging to himfelf ; for a Bailiff,
as Cato fays (2), ought not to be a walker or rambler, nor to go out of
his bounds, unlefs it be in order to learn fomething relating to Agricul¬
ture j and this is to be allowed, if it be fo near at hand, as he may be
able to come foon back again. Let him not fuffer any foot-paths, or
new boundaries or land-marks, to be made in the land ; neither let him
entertain any guefl, unlefs he be his mailer’s friend, or intimate acquaint¬
ance and relation.

As the Bailiff mufl be reflrained from thefe things, fo he mufl be
exhorted to take care of all the implements of Hufbandry, and iron
tools, and that of them he lay up well repaired, and keep in fafe cu-
flody, double of what the number of the fervants requires, that there
may be no occafion to borrow from neighbours ; becaufe there is more
loll in the fervants day's work, than is fpent in the price of things of
this fort. Let him keep all the fervants neat, and rather ufefully than
delicately cloathed, and carefully fecured from the wind, cold, and rain;
all which are provided againfl, and kept off, with leather-coats with
fleeves, coats made up of many patches, and fhort frocks with cowls.
If this be done, no day is fo infupportable, wherein fomething may
not be done in the open air.

Let him not only be a fkilful artifl, with refpedl to every thing re¬
lating to Hufbandry, but alfo be furnifhed with the virtues of the mind,
as much as his fervile difpofition and temper of mind does admit, that

(2) Cato, v. 2.

G

he

42 L ]. M. COLUMELLA Book I.

lie may neither govern with remifnefs, nor with cruelty. Let him
always cherifh fome of thofe that are good ; neverthelefs let him alio
fpare thofe that are not fo good as they ought to be, fo that they may
rather fear his fe verity, than deteft and abhor his cruelty. This point
he may gain, if he will rather chufe carefully to keep thofe that are
under his command from committing faults, than, by his own negli¬
gence, lay himfelf under a neceffity of punching delinquents. And
there cannot be a flronger guard fet even upon the wickedeft man liv¬
ing, than a rigorous exa&ing of his work. Let the Bailiff always make
his appearance, and fliew himlelf, that the daily talks may be performed;
for fo both the overfeers and directors of fuch and fuch particular works
will carefully execute their offices ; and the reft of the fervants, after
they are fatigued with their work, will rather fet their mind upon reft
and fleep, than upon pleafure and paftime.

Now, I with that thofe antient, but excellent cuftoms, which are
now become obfolete, could be brought again into ufe : Let him not
make ufe of the J'ervice of any of his fellow -fervants, but in affairs be¬
longing to his mafer. Let him not eat but in the fght of all the fer¬
vants ^ nor any other thing but what is given to the refl ; for thus he
will take care, that both the bread be well baked, and the other things
be wholfomely prepared. Let him not fuffer any body to go without the
bounds , unlefs he be fent by himfelf j but neither let him fend them him¬
felf ujilefs when great neceffity obliges him . Neither let him carry on
any bufniefs or commerce of his own , or employ his mafters money in buy¬
ing either animals , or any other things , in order to fell again ; for this
trafficking diverts the Bailiff from the care of his maflers affairs , and
never fuffers him to balance accounts with him, and to pay him to the
full ; but, when he is required to pay the money, inftead of the money,
he fhews the goods.

Neverthelefs, upon the whole, this one thing, above all others,
muft be required of him; viz. that he do not think himfelf to know
any thing whatfoever, which he is ignorant of; but that he always
feek to learn what he does not know : for, when it profits much to do
any thing fkilfully, then it hurts more to have done it amifs. For there
is one thing, and that only, which bears fway, and is the turning point
in Hufbandry ; viz. to do , once for all , whatever the method and. man¬
ner of the Culture requires ; for whenever the imprudence or neglecft is
rectified, the thing itfelf has already fuftained damage ; nor does it
afterwards yield fuch abundant increafe, as both to reftore itfelf fo far
as it is loft, and to recover and make up the gain you might have got
by it in times paft.

4

As

Chap. VIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 43

As to the other fervants, thofe following precepts mull, for the moft
part, be obferved ; and I don’t repent, that I myfelf have kept them
carefully; viz. that I would oftener, and with greater familiarity, fpeak
to rural than to town fervants, provided they had behaved themfelves
tolerably well ; and when I underftood, that their conftant labour was
alleviated by the matters gentle behaviour and affability, I would fome-
times alfo jell and be merry with them, and allow them greater liberty
to have their jefts. This alfo I often do. : I deliberate and advife with
them concerning any new works, as with perfons that have more fkill,
that thereby ! may know what fort of genius, and what flock of pru¬
dence, every one of them has. Then, I alfo obferve, that they fet
about that work more willingly, which they have been confulted about,
and which, they think, has been undertaken by their advice.

Now, it is the ufual practice of all people that are circumfpecl, and
they never fail, to revie wthe flaves that are confined in the work-
houfe; to examine very narrowly, if they are carefully chained, and
whether the places of their confinement are flrong and fecure enough ;
or whether or not the Bailiff has bound any perfon without the mafter’s
knowledge, or put him under cloler confinement : for the Bailiff ought
to be exceeding careful of thofe two things ; viz. that whomfoever the
matter of the family has inflictted this punifhment upon, he (the Bailiff)
fhould never releafe him from his fetters, but by his permifiion ; and
whomfoever he has put in bonds by his own authority, he fhould not
foofe him, before the matter knows it* And the matter of a family,
ought to inquire fo much the more narrowly about this kind of fervants,
left they be injurioufly treated, either as to their apparel, or any other
thing allowed them; inafmuch as they, being fubjedt to more perfons,
as Bailiffs, Directors, and Overfeers of the works, and Keepers of the
prifon and workhoufe, are more liable to fuffer injuries; and, on the
other hand, are more to be dreaded, when they are hurt, either by
cruelty or avarice. Therefore let a diligent matter inquire both of
themfelves, and alfo of the other fervants that are not in bonds, who
are moft to be credited, whether they receive all their juft dues, accord¬
ing to his appointment ; and let him examine into the goodnefs of the
bread and drink, by tatting them himfelf, and review and examine
into their cloathing, mittens, and flioes ; and let him often give them
liberty and opportunity to complain of thofe, who either ufe them bar-
baroufly, or cheat and deceive them. We indeed are as careful to do
iuftice to, and avenge thofe, who complain with any appearance ot
lattice, as to corredt and punifti thofe, who raife {editions and uproars
among the fervants, and calumniate their Overfeers and Directors ;

G 2 and.

44. L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book h

and, on the other hand, we beftow rewards upon thofe, who behave
themfelves with activity and diligence.

To women alfo, who have been more fruitful than ordinary, who,
for a certain number of children, ought to be honoured and refpedted,
we have fometimes given reft from labour, and alfo their liberty, when
they had educated and brought up many fons j for fhe, that had three,
fons, was exempted from labour j and fhe, that had more, obtained-
her liberty alfo. For this juftice and care of a mafter of a family con¬
tributes much to increafe his eftate.

But, whenever the mafter of a family returns from the city, let him-
remember to pay his devotion to his houfhold gods.^ Then, if it be a)
proper time, and early in the day, let him prefently, if otherwife, the;
next day, carefully vilit and furvey his bounds, and review all the:
parts of his land, and conftder, whether his abfence has not occafioned
fome relaxation in the difcipline and watch ; whether any tree, whether
any vine, whether any fruits of the ground, are out of their place, and.
gone. Then let him alfo mufter all his fervants, and number his cattle,
and look over all the tools belonging to the ground, and his houfhold'
furniture. All which things if he purpofe and refolve to do for many,
years, when old age fhall come upon him, he fhall enjoy the advan¬
tages of a regular and well-ordered difcipline ; nor fhall. he ever be fa *
decrepit or worn out with years, as to be defpifed by his fervants. .

chap: ix.

Of what Size and Plight of Body the Slaves mufl he , which )

are to he aligned to every 'particular JVorh. .

»

WE muft alfo tell you, to what buftnefs or works we think every
particular habit of body and mind proper to be appointed. The
fedulous and mod frugal you muft make Overfeers and Mafters of your
works j for both thefe qualities contribute more to this buftnefs, than
either ftature or ftrength of body j becaufe this employment and fer-
vice is an office of diligent watchfulnefs, and of art. The genius or
difpofttion of the mind, tho’ neceflary in a Herdfman, or in one that
labours with oxen, neverthelefs is not enough, unlefs the hugenefs of
his voice, and the bulk of his body, make him formidable to the cattle.
But let clemency moderate his ftrength, becaufe he ought to be more

terrible

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 45

terrible than cruel, that the oxen, not being worn out and confumed
with the vexation of labour, and blows at the fame time, may both
be obedient to his commands, and hold out for more years. But what
the offices of Matters and Overfeers of the works, and thofe of Herdf-
men, and Labourers with oxen, are, I ffiall treat of again in their
own place. It fuffices at prefent to have taken notice, that, in thefe,
tallnefs and ftrength of body is of very great importance, but, in thofe,
of none at all ; for, as I faid, we ffiould make the tailed; of our fervants
Ploughmen, both for what I have already mentioned, and alfo becaufe
there is no work in Huffiandry, wherewith a tall man is lefs fatigued,
becaufe, in plowing, he leans almoft eredt upon the plough-tail.

A fervant for low labour and drudgery may be of any fize, provided
he be fit for enduring labour. Vineyards don’t fo much require tall
men, as fuch as are broad and brawny, and have long arms; for this
make of body is more convenient for digging, pruning, and other parts
of culture relating to therm

Agriculture does not require fobriety and moderation fo much in this
particular bufinefs of vine-dreffing, as in other parts of it ; becaufe a
vine-drefifer ought to do his work both in the company of many others,
and alfo under the eye of a monitor/ And, for the moft part, wicked
fellows are. of a. more, quick and adtive fpirit, which the nature and
quality of this work requires ; for it requires not only one that is robuft,
but one. that is quick, adtive, and dextrous to attend upon it : there¬
fore vineyards are commonly cultivated by flaves kept in chains. Ne-
verthelefs there is nothing that a fober man, of the fame nimblenefs and
activity, will not do better than a rogue. I have inferted this, that no¬
body may think, that I entertain any fuch opinion, as to chufe to culti¬
vate the ground rather by malefadtors, than by innocent men. But this
is what I think, that the bufinefs of fervants ffiould not be confounded,
fo that all of them ffiould be put upon doing all things ; for that is not
at all for the intereft of the Huffiandman, either becaufe not any one of
them believes, that any particular work does properly belong to him ; or
becaufe, when he has done his utmoft endeavours, he believes, that he
does not promote his own proper bufinefs, but that which is common to
all ; therefore he flackens his hand, and very much withdraws himfelf
from the labour: nor yet can a fault, which is done by many, be found
out to be done by any particular man ; for which reafon the Plough¬
men muff be feparated from the Vine-dreflers, and the Vine-drelfers
from the Ploughmen, and thefe from the Drudges.

The clafles alfo, into which you rank your fervants, mull be made
not to confift of more than ten men, which the antients called decuries ,

and

2

46 L.J.M. COLUMELLA, &c. . Book I

and did mod; approve of, becaufe this determinate number might be
mod: conveniently watched over, and obferved, while they were doing
their work, and their multitude not confound the diligence of their
M onitor, who leads the way. Therefore, if the land be of a conflder-
abU breadth, the clafles mud be led forth to different quarters, and the
work fo divided, that they may neither be by ones nor by twos ; be¬
caufe, when they are difperfed, they are not eafily watched over, and
kept to their bufinefs. Neverthelefs there ought not to be above ten
together, led, on the other hand, when there is too great a number
together, each individual may think, that the work does not belong to
him. This way of ordering and difpofing them not only raifes emula¬
tion, but difcovers the dothful alfo ; for whild every one is driving to
forward the work, then the punifhment of loiterers is jud, and feems
infli&ed without murmuring or complaint. But while we are giving
precepts and directions to the future Hufbandman concerning fuch things
as he mud chiefly loo k after and take care of before-hand, viz. the
wholfomenefs, the road, the neighbourhood, the water, the fituation of
the manor-houfe, the extent of the ground, the feveral forts of tenants
and fervants, the didribution of the feveral offices and works, by thefe
we come now, in due time, to the culture of the ground itfelfj of
which we fliall prefently difcourfe at great length in the following
book.

L. JUNIUS

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK SECOND.

CHAP. I.

That the Earth neither grows old \ nor wears out , if it he

YO U afk me, Publius Sihinus, what I don’t refufe to inform
you of without delay j Why, in the very beginning of the
hrft book, I immediately confuted the opinion of almoft all
the antients, who have fpoken of Hufbandry ; and rejected,
as falfe and erroneous (i), their judgment, who think, that the earth,
being wearied and worn out by a long-continued cultivation, and
become barren by the filth, naftinefs, and mouldinefs it has contra&ed,
in a long fucceffion of years already paft, is now become old ? I am
not ignorant, that you have a great veneration for the authority, both
of other illuftrious writers, and efpecially for that of 'Tremellius ; who,
after having, in an elegant and learned manner, written and published
very many precepts of Hufbandry, being certainly carried away and
allured by too great a regard for the antients, who treat of the like fub-
je£t, did, without any foundation, believe, that the earth , th q parent
of all things , like the female fex, being now fpent and worn out with

(i) Pliny alfo, in his natural kiftory , confutes the opinion of thofe, who think, that
the earth is become old, and lefs fruitful than formerly ; and charges its unfruitfulnefs upon
its want of due cultivation, lib. xvii. c. 5. and in ocher places.

old

+8 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

old age, was become unfit for the production of fruits. Which thing
I myfelf would alfo acknowledge, if fhe produced no fruits at all : for a
woman is then reckoned to be arrived at barren old age, not when fhe
ceafes to bring two or three children at a birth, but when fhe is neither
able to conceive or bring forth at all. Therefore, after the days of her
youth are paft and gone, tho’ a long life ftill remains, yet bearing of
children, which is denied to years, is not reflored to her : but, on the
contrary, when the earth is abandoned, and left deftituteof men, either
by their own choice, or by fome accident, yet, when they return to it
again, and cultivate it, it pays the Hufbandman with a very large ufury
for the time it ceafed. Therefore the earth’s old age is not the caufe
of the fmall quantity of her fruit, feeing that, when once old age has
invaded and come upon her, fhe has no regrefs, no way to recover her-
fe If, to take heart, and grow young again.

Nor indeed does the wearinefs and faintnefs of the ground diminifh
the fruit that is due to the Hufbandman ; for it does not become a wife
man to be induced to believe, that, as in men 'wearinefs follows upon,
and is occafioned by, too violent exercife of the body, or the weight of
fome burden, fo it is with land, by its being toffed and tumbled by
frequent cultivation. Why is it therefore, fay you, that Tremellius
pofitively affirms, that woodlands, which were never tilled, when they
are firft cultivated, bring forth abundantly ; but, foon afterwards, they
don’t thus pay the labour of^the Hufbandman ? He fees, no doubt, what
comes to pafs; but why, it is fo, he does not throughly underffand.
For land, which has lain long uncultivated, and which, from being
all covered over with wood, has been lately reduced into corn-land,
ought not therefore to be reckoned the more fruitful, becaufe it has lain
untilled, and is younger; but becaufe, being fattened, as it were, with
the more plentiful nourifhment, which it received from the leaves and
herbs, which it naturally produced, during the courfe of many years,
it has ffrength enough to bring forth, educate, and bring to perfection,
the fruits that grow upon it. But when the roots of the herbs, which
are torn up and broken with fpades and ploughs, and the woods which
are .cut down with the ax, have left off nourifhing their mother with
their leaves, and when fuch leaves as fell down from fhrubs and trees in
the autumn, and lay upon her, are, prefently after, turned over with
the fock, and mixed with the lower ground, which, for the moft part,
is leaner, and afterwards confumed, it follows, that the ground, being
deprived of its former nourifhment, grows lean.

It is not therefore from wearinefs, as very many have believed, nor
from old age, but indeed from our own flothfulnefs, that our cultivated

lands

Chap. II. 0/ HUSBANDRY,

49

lands don’t fo bountifully anfwer our expectation as formerly ; for we
might receive a greater produCt, if the earth were refreflied and che-
riflied with frequent, feafonable, and moderate ftercoration : of the cul¬
ture of which we fhall now difcourfe, as we promifed in the firft book.

CHAP. II.

Of the fever al Kinds of Land .

HEY who had the greateft fkill and experience in Hulbandry,

± O i Silvanusy have faid, That there are three kinds of land (i),
champain, hilly , and mountainous . They approved moft of a champain ,
lituated not upon a perfectly equal and even plain, nor exactly upon a
level, but fomewhat declining ; of a hill riling gently, and by degrees ;
and of a mountain not lofty and rugged, but covered with plenty of wood
and grafs. And to each of thefe kinds they affign lix different fpecies
of land ; viz. that of a fat or lean, loofe or denfe, moift or dry foil ;
which qualities, compounded and mixed alternately with one another,
make very many varieties of land. To enumerate them, is not the bu-
finefs of the ingenious Hulbandman ; nor indeed is it the bufinefs of
any art to wander over all the different fpecies, which are innumerable ;
but to begin with generals, which can be eafily joined together by the
thoughts of the mind, and brought within the compafs of words.

Therefore we muff have recourfe to certain conjunctions, as it were,
of qualities, that are unlike or contrary to one another, which the Greeks
call au^uyltxs evccvliolvTcov, and we fhall tolerably well call the matching

(i) Varro , lib. i. cap. 6. defcribes the conveniendes and inconveniencies of thefe three
different fituations of land : * In champain lands, he fays, the heat is greater, as in Apulia^
‘ where it is very grievous. Lands that are mountainous, as thofe of Vefuvius , are lighter,
‘ and fo more wholfome. They who cultivate low lands, fuffer greater inconveniency
« in fummer ,• but high lands more in winter. Low grounds are both fown and reaped
‘ earlier in the fpring, than thofe that are high. Some things grow taller and ftronger upon
‘ mountains, becaufe of the cold, as firs and oaks, <&c. Other things thrive beft below,
< becaufe it is warmer, as the almond-tree , and the Marijcan fig-tree. Corn-lands are moft

* efteemed upon plains ; vineyards upon little hills ; and woods upon mountains. They
« who inhabit champains, are beft accommodated in winter, becaufe then the meadows

* have plenty of grafs, and trees can then be tolerably well pruned. On the contrary, ic
« is more convenient living upon mountains in fummer, becaufe then there is plenty of
‘ forrage there, when all things are withered and burnt up below ; and the culture of trees
‘ is more commodioufly performed, becaufe there the air is colder. A champain, which
‘ tends or declines equably towards one part, is better than that, which lies exactly upon
‘ a leveL’ With feveral other oblervations too tedious to mention.

H

or

5o L, J, M, COLUMELLA Book II.

or joining together of difcordant things. And we muft alfo inform you,
that, of all the things which the earth brings forth, there are more of
them which thrive better upon a champain, than upon a hill, and in a
fat foil, than in a lean. As to things growing in foils naturally dry, or
well watered, we don’t find out, which of them exceed in number, fee¬
ing it is certain, that fuch as delight in dry places are almoft infinite, as
are alio thofe that delight in moift ; but there is not any one of them,
that does not grow up better in loofe and open ground, than in that
which is clofe and denfe j which our countryman Virgil alfo, after he
had reckoned up the other commendable qualities of fruitful land,
added (2),

* A loofe and crumbling foil ; for, with the plough,

* We ftrive to make it fuch.’

For to cultivate is no other thing but to open, and loofen, and fer¬
ment the earth ; therefore the fame land, which is both fat, and loofe,
and crumbling, yields the greateft profits, becaufe, at the time that it
yields the moft, it requires the leaft, and what it requires is done with
very little labour and expence. Therefore fuch a foil may very juftly
be faid to be the very beft of any.

Then, next to this, is the fatty-thick denfe foil , which rewards, with
great increafe, the charges and labour of the farmer. A place that is
well watered is reckoned in the third rank, becaufe it can yield fruit
without any charge. Cato , who preferred the product of meadows to
all other produ&s of lands whatfoever, called this the beft. But we are
now fpeaking of moving and agitating the earth, and not of letting it
lie ft ilk

There is no kind reckoned worfe, than that which is dry, and like-
wife denfe and lean ; becaufe it is both cultivated with difficulty, and,
when it is cultivated, it does not fo much indeed as thank you : nor does
it turn to good account, when you turn it to meadows or paftures.
Therefore this land, whether it be tilled, or lies fallow, will always
give the Hufbandman reafon to wifh he had never meddled with it,
and is to be avoided as if it were peftilential j for this brings forth deaths
but that , famine , death’s moft frightful and cruel companion, if we
give credit to the Grecian mufes, which cry aloud (3),

* With famine to confume and pine away,

* And flowly die at laft, what wo fo great ? ’

{2) Virg. Georg, lib. ii. 204.

(2) oiflisov davitv/ x} v'ory.ov Wifforgp’, *1

But

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 5i

Bat now we fliall rather take into confideration that kind of land
which is more fruitful, which muH be confidered under two different
views ; viz. as cultivated , and as covered with wood. We fhall fir (l
fpeak of reducing woodlands into the form of arable ground ; becaufe
clearing of land is of an older date than the cultivating of it. Let us
therefore confider a place that is not cultivated, whether it be dry or
moifl, full of wood and trees, or rugged and craggy, and full of Hones ;
whether it be covered with rufhes or with grafs, and encumbered with
fern-plots, and nurferies of other fhrubs. If it be wet, let the abun¬
dance of moiflure be firfl drained and dried up by ditches. Of thefe
we have known two forts, blind or hidden , and open. In thick and
chalky grounds they are left open ; but, where the ground is more loofe,
fome of them are made open, and others of them are alfo fhut up and
covered; fo that the gaping mouths of fuch of them as are blind may
empty themfelves into thofe that are open. But it will be proper, that
the open ones be wider towards the upper part, and doping and narrow
towards the bottom, like ridge-tiles inverted ; for fuch of them, whofe
fides are perpendicular, are prefently fpoiled with the water, and filled
up with the falling down of the ground that lies uppermoH.

Moreover, thefe blind works ought to be made by finking furrows
three feet deep, which, after they are half-filled with Hones and bare
gravel, are made even, by throwing upon them the earth that you dig¬
ged out of them ; but, if you have neither Hones nor gravel, you mult
make, as it were, a rope of fprays tied together, of fuch a thicknefs,
as the bottom of the narrow ditch may receive it when it is prefied to¬
gether, and, as it were, exactly fitted to it. Then it mult be Hretched
all along the bottom; and, after treading cyprefs or pine-boughs upon it,
or, if thefe cannot be had, any other boughs, let it be covered with earth,
having placed at the head and mouth of the ditch two great Hones only,
inftead of pillars, and one fingle Hone above thefe, after the manner of
little bridges, that this kind of ftrudture may fupport the bank, that it
may not be fhut up, and the water hindered either to run into it, or out
of it.

There are two ways of managing tradls of land that are covered with
wood, fhrubs, and bufhes, either by extirpating the trees by the very
roots, and removing them ; or, if they be thin, by cutting them down,
and fetting them on fire, and plowing up the ground. But it is eafy to
clear flony ground, by picking up the Hones ; and, if there be a great
number of them, fome parts of the ground muH be taken up with build¬
ing them into certain piles, that fo the other places may be clear of them ;
or the Hones muH be buried in furrows dug very deep: which never-

H 2 thelefs

52 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

thelefs is only to be done, in cafe the low wages of the labourers engage
you to do it.

The deftrueftion of bulrufhes and grafs is trenching ; and of fern,
frequently plucking them up by the roots, which may be done even
with the plough ; for, when they are often pulled up, within the fpace
of two years they die, and the more fpeedily alfo, if, at the fame time,
you dung, and fow with lupines or beans, that, with fome return and
profit, you may cure the diftemper of the ground ; for it is certain, that
fern is the moil eafily killed by fowing and dunging : but, if you cut
it with a weeding-hook, as it grows up from time to time, which is bufi-
nefs for a very boy, its livelinefs is deftroyed within the forefaid time.

But now, after the method of clearing rough uncultivated land, fol¬
lows the care of lands, that are newly broken up and cultivated ; of
which I fhall prefently declare my opinion, after I (halt have given fuch
precepts and directions to fuch as delire to inform themfelves of the na¬
ture of corn-lands, as muft be firft learned.

I remember, that very many of the antients, who have written of
Hufbandry, have declared, that the peculiar Jhveetnefs of the ground,
the abundance oj herbs and trees , and the fruit , they produced, and its
black or afljy colour , were, as it were, acknowledged uncontefted and
undoubted figns of land that was fat, and would bear corns in abund¬
ance. As to the reft, I am doubtful ; but, as to the colour , I cannot
enough admire, that both other writers, and alfo Cornelius Celfus, a
man not only well acquainted with Hufbandry, but alfo with univerfal
nature, fhould have been fo much miftaken, both in their judgment,
and alfo in their eye-fight, that fo many marfhes, and fo many fields
alfo full of falt-pits, which, for the moft part, are of the forefaid colours,
did not occur to them : for we l'carcely fee a place, which is not either
of a black or afhy colour, provided it contain any water that moves
flowly ; unlefs I myfelf perhaps am deceived in this, that I don’t think,
that exceeding good corn can grow or thrive well either in a marfhy or
flimy, or in a bitter and oufy foil, or in plains lying upon the fea-fide,
which are full of falt-pits. But this error of the antients is too mani-
feft to want to be confuted by many arguments.

The colour therefore is no certain authority, nor fure evidence, of the
goodnefs of arable lands ; and therefore corn-land , that is, rich fat land,
muft rather be judged of by other qualities; for as the ftrongeft cattle
have different and almoft innumerable colours, fo alfo the ftrongeft
lands have a great number and variety of them. Therefore as we muft
take care, that the ground, which we mark out by its colour for culti¬
vating, be fat, yet this is but of very little importance by itfelf, if it

wajnt

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 53

want fweetnefs ; both which we may inform ourfelves of in a manner
expeditious enough : for you fprinkle a very little water upon a clod of
it, and knead.it with your hand ; and if it be glutinous, and if, when
prefled with the gentleft touch, it flicks to your fingers, and, as Virgil
fays (4),

£ When handled, clammy grows, and fticks, like pitch,

‘ Fall: to the fingers

And if, when the fame is thrown againft the ground, it does not crum¬
ble, and fall into fmall bits, this tells us, that, in fuch matter, there is
a natural inherent juice and fatnefs ; but alfo, if after having thrown
the earth out of fome trenches, you would replace and put it up very
clofe, and tread it down again, when, with fome kind of ferment, as
it were, there is more than enough of it for filling up the trench, it will
be a certain fign, that it is fat y and when there is not enough, but fome-
what wanting, we may be fure, that it is poor and lean j and, when
it exactly fills them, that it is middling : tho’ thefe things I have now
mentioned may poflibly feem not to be fo true figns, as if the earth
were fomewhat of a blackifh colour, which is beft tried and approved
by the increafe of the fruits it produces.

We (hall alfo know it by its tafie, if out of that part of the land,
which difpleafes us moft, there be clods dug, and foaked in an earthen
veflel, and thoroughly mixed with fweet water, and carefully ftrained,
in the manner of dreggy wine, and then carefully examined by the tafie;
for whatever tafie the water fhall have, which it has derived from the
clods, fuch we fhall fay the ground has.

But, befides this experiment, there are many things, which may
fhew, that the earth is both fweet, and fit for corn, as the nifh , the reed ,
grafs, the dwarf-elder , bramble-buJJjes , wild plum-trees , and many
other things, which are alfo known to them that fearch for water, and
are not nourifhed but by the fweet veins of the earth. Nor mufi we
be contented with the appearance of the furface of the earth, but care¬
fully fearch to find out the quality of the matter that lies below, whe¬
ther it be earthy, or not. But it will be fufficient for corns, if the
ground below be equally good two feet deep. The depth of four feet
is abundantly enough for trees.

When we have thus carefully examined and made experiments upon
thefe things, we mufi prepare the land for fowing the feed. And the
land yields no fmall increafe, if it be carefully and fkiifully manured ;

(4) V‘rS- Georg, lib. i. 2.50.

where-

5+ L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookIL

wherefore almoft all the molt antient writers have written of, and de¬
ferred, the form or method of this work, which Hufbandmen might
follow as maxims , and as a law, in tilling their lands.

It is therefore proper, that, when the oxen are at work, they be
yoked clofe to one another, that they may go the more gracefully,
with a lofty air, and their heads elate ; and that their necks may be
the lefs weakened, and the yoke be fitted to, and fit the better upon,
their necks (5); for this way of yoking is mod approved: for that
which is in ufe in fome provinces, of faflening the yoke to their horns,
is rejefted almoft bv all, who have written any precepts or directions
for Hufbandmen. Nor is it without reafon ; for the cattle can exert
themfelves, and ufe greater efforts, with their necks and breafts, than
with their horns ; and, by this method, they tug and ftrain with the
whole bulk and weight of their body ; but, by that, they are put to
great torment, by pulling back their heads, and turning their faces ex¬
actly upward; and, with a very light plough-fhare, they fcarcely wound
the uppermoft part of the earth: and therefore they till the ground
with fmaller ploughs, which are not ftrong enough to rip up the fallow
grounds or lay-lands (6), which are plowed very deep ; and, when
they are thus plowed, it is a great advantage to every green thing that
grows upon them : for, when corn-lands are throughly plowed with a
deep furrow, both the corns and the fruits of trees grow the larger, and
they yield a greater increafe. Therefore I differ from Celfus , who,
fearing the expence, which is greater in oxen of a larger fize, advifes
to manure the land with fmall plough-fhares and coulters, that fo it
may be performed with oxen of a fmaller fize ; not knowing, that there
is a greater revenue from the great plenty of the fruits of the ground,
than the charges of purchafing greater cattle can amount to, efpecially
in Italy, where the land, being planted with trees for fupporting of
vines, and with olives, requires to be opened and tilled deeper, that

(5) It feems the difpute about placing the yoke upon oxen, whether it be belt to fix it
upon their head or their neck, is not yet determined, feeing, in different parts of Italy ,
at prerent, they ufe it both way s, tho’ what our author fays againft fixing it to their horns
feems very reafonable ; and one may eafily obferve, that oxen labour more when they
draw with their heads, than with their necks. It feems, in Epirus they fattened them to
their horns; for Callimachus calls the oxen xifctKKzn, becaufe, fays the fcholiaft, they
draw the plough with their horns.

(6) Novalia , novalium , or novalis ager , which I tranflate fallow-grounds or lay-lands,
properly fignifies land that has never before been tilled or cultivated. Pliny indeed calls
fometimes novalis ager , that which was fown every other year ; he alfo calls by the fame
name land, from off which old wood has been cut. But moft authors mean, by ager
novalis, land which refts one year, and is fown the other. IJidorus fays, that it both figni-
ffes land tilled for the firft rime, and alfo that which refts every other year, in order to
renew its ftrength.

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 55

fo the uppermoft roots of the vines and olives may be cut with the
plough-fhare j which, if they remain in the ground, are hurtful to the
fruits of it ; and that the lower roots, when the ground is throughly
manured, and plowed very deep, may more eafily receive nourifhment
from the moifture.

Neverthelefs that method of Celfuss may be very proper and fit for
Numidia and Egypt, where, for the mod part, the ground, being void
of trees, is fown with corns ; and it is fufficient, that this fort of land,
which is of a light, loofe, and crumbling mould, with fat fands, as it
were, loofe allies, be moved with the lighted: plough-fhare. But the
ploughman, whogoverns the oxen, muft walk upon the plowed ground,
and, at every other turning, hold the plough obliquely, and, by turns,
to furrow with a ftrait and full plough, fo as not to leave in any place
the ground unplowed and unmoved, which is what Hulbandmen call a
balk .

When the oxen come to a tree, he muft keep them in ftrongly, and
make them ftep {lowly, left the plough-fhare, being driven with greater
force againft the root, give a {hock to their necks, or left the ox ftrike
with great violence with his horn againft the ftock of the tree, or lightly
touch the trunk with the extremity of the yoke, or break off a branch.
Let him rather terrify them with his voice, than with blows j and let
ftrokes be the laft remedies when they refute their work. Let him ne¬
ver provoke a fteer with the goad j for it makes him pull back, and
gives him a cuftom of kicking. Neverthelefs let him fometimes put
him in mind with his whip. Neither let him flop half-way before he
come to the turning ; but let him give them a little reft at the end of
the furrow, that fo the ox, in hopes of refting, may, with greater agi¬
lity, pull the whole length. But to draw a longer furrow than one
hundred and twenty feet, is hurtful to the cattle ; for, when it exceeds
this meafure, they are fatigued more than they ought to be.

When they are come to the turning, let him pufh the yoke forward,
and hold in the oxen, that their necks may cool, which quickly contract
a burning heat (unlel’s they are conftantly cooled); and from this arifes
a fwelling, and then ulcers. Let the Ploughman make no lefs ufe of a
chip-ax than of the plough-fhare ; and let him fearch' after, and dig up;
all the broken flumps and uppermoft roofs, wherewith land, planted
with trees for fupporting vines, is always peftered and embaraffed.

G II A P.

56

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book I L

CHAP. III.

v , * ; ■*- 's * - » *• ' - -■ M

Of the Care that is to he taken of Oxen , when they are unyoked \

AS foon as the Ploughman has unyoked the oxen from their work,
let him rub them down while they are girt, and prefs their back
llrongly with his hands, and pull their fkin once and again, and not
fuffer it to flick fail;. to their body j for this kind of difeafe is very hurt¬
ful to oxen. Let him rub their necks flrongly, and pour pure wine
into their jaws, if they be extremely hot. It is enough to give two
fextaj-ii to each of them. But it is not proper to ty the oxen to their
cribs, till they have left off fweating and panting. Then, when it is
due time to feed them, it is not proper to give them much food, nor
their whole portion, but in parts, and little by little ; which when they
have eaten up, they mull be led out to water, and indeed to drink by
whiffling, that they may drink the more willingly : and, when they
are brought back, they mud be fatiated with a larger allowance of fod¬
der. What has hitherto been laid of the office of. a Ploughman, who
has oxen under his care, is fufficient. Our next bufinefs is to give di¬
rections alfo about the proper feafons for manuring all forts of corn-
lands.

CHAP. IV.

Of the "Time of the Year when3 and how Lands mujl be plowed*

FAT champain lands, which contain water the longeft, muff be
tilled, for the firft time, when the feafon of the year begins to
grow warm, after they have brought forth all their herbs, and their
feeds are not yet come to maturity j but they muff be plowed with fo
numerous, thick, and clofe furrows, that it may fcarcely be difeerned
which way the Plough-fflare was drawn : for thus all the roots of the
herbs are torn up, and killed. But let (i) fallow-land be fo reduced into

(i) Vervaftum feems to fignify the very fame as ager nova lit, land newly broken up,
or fallow-land, and as our author in this 4th chapter, no doubt, understands it, when he
orders it to be plowed feveral tiroes over, that it may be reduced into duft; and he oppofes
it to ager rejlibilis , which was plowed and fown every year. The firft, he fays, requires
double the labour that the fecond does. Pliny fays indeed, that it is called vervaftum,
from the time of the year it is plowed in, quafi vere aftum, i. e. aratum.

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 57

dull:, by plowing it over and over again, that, when we fow it, it may
require very little or no harrowing at all ; for the antient Romans faid,
that that land was ill manured , which wanted harrowing after the feed
was fown. The Hufbandman ought frequently to examine and try,
whether it be rightly plowed or not; and not only with his eyes, which
are often deceived, the balks lying hid with the earth fpread upon them,
but let him examine it alfo by feeling it, which is lefs liable to deceit,
when a firm and ftiff pole is applied to, and put through, the crofs fur¬
rows. If it has penetrated equally, and without meeting with any refin¬
ance, it is manifeft, that the whole ground fo far has been moved ; but,
if any harder part has refilled it as it paffed, it is a demonllration, that
the fallow-ground is not yet plowed up. When the ploughmen lee
this frequently done, they dare not be guilty of making balks : there¬
fore wet champain lands ought to be tilled after the 13 th of April .
When they have been tilled about this time, you mull let the days about
the time of the folllice intervene, which is about the 23d or the 24th
of June ; and then they mull be plowed a fecond time, and then a third
time about the beginning of September ; for all that have Ikill in Hus¬
bandry agree, that, from the fummer folllice till that time, it is not
proper to plow, unlefs the earth be throughly wet with fudden and
unexpected fhowers, like winter-rains, as it Sometimes happens. And,
when this really happens, there is nothing to hinder, why fallow-lands,
that have been plowed in the Spring, may not be manured in the
month of July.

But whenever land is plowed, we mull obferve never to touch it
when it is miry and dirty, nor when it is half- wet with Small Ihowers ;
which fort of land peafants call various or Speckled, and carious (2) :
and it is Such, when, after long droughts, a light rain has only wet the
upper part of the clods, but has not reached to the under part. For Such
corn -lands as are plowed when full of dime and dirt, are not in a con¬
dition to be handled the whole year after ; and, in feed-time, are nei¬
ther fit for fowing nor harrowing : but, on the other hand, Such as are
plowed when they are various or Speckled, continue barren for three

(2) Terra varia dr cariofa. Cato fays, Beware you fir fpeckled and carious land either
with cart or cattle. Pliny, in his nat. hif. explains this fhort expreiTion very eleganrly and
fully thus : What , fays he, can he meant by this floort phrafe, carious ground, which Cato
feems to he fo much afraid of, as to forbid us almofl to tread upon it 1 Let us compare it
with the rottennrfs of wood, and we f hall find in it thofe defers, which he fo much abhors ,
dry, fifulous, or Jpongy, rufy, rugged , hoary, eaten, confumed , and full of holes, like a pumice-
fione. Cato faid more in one word, than can be expreffed by the moji copious language ;
for hereby are fgnified certain imperfections of the foil , proceeding not from old age, which
cannot be attributed to the earth, but from its own nature ; and therefore it is weak and
unfruitful, and unfit for every thing.

I whole

I

5 8 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

whole years. Therefore, in lands that mud be plowed, let us chiefly
follow a middle temperament, that they may neither want juice, nor
abound in moifture ; becaufe too much moifture, as I faid, makes them
flimy and miry, and iuch as are dried up with droughts cannot be
rightly managed ; for, either by the hardnefs of the ground, the plough-
fhare is rejected and thrown out, or, if it has penetrated in any part, it
does not cleave the ground into fmall clods, but pulls it up in great turfs;
which lying in the way, the land is fo entangled, that it cannot be fo
rightly plowed a fecond time as it ought to be ; becaufe, by the weight
of thefe turfs, the plough-Ihare is thruft out of the furrow, as if fome
folid thing, funk deep into the earth, did ftand in its way; whereby
it comes to pafs, that balks are alfo made when it is plowed a fecond
time; and the oxen are very much hurt by the ruggednefs and griev-
oufnefs of the work.

Moreover we may here add, that all ground whatfoever, tho’ exceed¬
ing rich, neverthelefs has its lower part poorer and hungrier ; and when
great fods are raifed, they pull up the poor ground ; whereby it comes
to pafs, that the more unfruitful matter, being mixed with that which
is fatter, makes the crop of corn the lefs plentiful ; alfo the expences of
the Hufbandman are much heightened by the flow progrefs that his
work makes : for the ufual talks cannot be performed when the ground
is become hard. Therefore, in drought, I advife, that what is already
plowed be plowed a fecond time ; and that rain be expected and waited
for, which, by moiftening the earth, may make its culture eafy to us.
But a jugerum of fuch land is difpatched by one labourer in four days ;
for it is eafily tilled at firft with two days labour, and plowed a fecond
time with one, and a third time with three fourths of a day ; and, with
the .founh part of a day’s labour, it is lown, and reduced into ridges.
Hufbandmen call them ridges , when the ground is fo plowed, as that
the accumulated part between two furrows, at fome tolerable diftance
the one from the other, may afford a dry feat for the corns.

Hilly ground, where the foil is fat, muft be tilled, for the firft time,
in the month of March , after the trimeftrian fowing (3 ) is finifhed ;
but prefently in February , if the warmnefs of the climate, and the dri-
nefs of the country, advife you to it. Then they muft be plowed a
fecond time from the middle of April till the folftice; and for the third
time in the month of September , about the equinox. And a jugerum of
fuch land is throughly cultivated with the fame number of days labour

(3) Trhneftria?2 fowing is of that fort of wheat, or other grain, which grows up, ripens,
and is cut down about three months after it is fown. It is Town in the fpring, where frofts-
and fnows begin very early. This kind of wheat is common among th zAlps.

as

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 59

as wet and oufy champain lands. But, in plowing, it mull efpecially be
obferved, that the furrow be always drawn crofs the hill ; for, by this
method, the difficulty arifing from the acclivity of the ground is fur-
mounted and broken, and the labour both of men and cattle is moft
commodioufly leffened. Neverthelefs, as often as we plow it a fecond
time, the furrow mull be drawn oblique, fometimes a little toward the
higher, and fometimes toward the lower parts of the hill j fo that we
may plow it the fecond time toward both parts, and not labour the
ground always in the fame track.

Let poor lean land, which lies upon a level, and abounds in water,
be firll tilled about the latter end of the month of Auguji, and then
plowed a fecond time in September , and made ready for fowing about
the equinox. But this kind of ground is more expeditioufly laboured
than any other ; and therefore fewer days labour are bellowed upon it :
for three are fufficient for one jugerum. Alio {lender, meagre, riling
ground mull not be plowed in fummer, but about the firll of Septem¬
ber ; becaufe, if it is cut up before that time, it becomes barren, and
loles its juice, and is burnt up with the fummer fun, and has no llrength
remaining in it : therefore it is bell to till it, for the firll time, between
the firll and the thirteenth day of September, and foon afterward to plow
it a fecond time, that it may be in a condition to be fown when the firft
rains fall about the time of the equinox. Nor in fuch land mull the
feed be fown on the ridges, but in the furrows.

CHAP. V.

Of the manner of dunging lean thin Land.

NEVERTHELESS it will be proper to dung lean thin land before
we plow it a fecond time j for, by this kind of nourilhment, as
it were, it gathers llrength. In champain lands the heaps of dung mull
be laid thinner, and on hills thicker, and they mull be about five modii
each ; and, upon a plain, it will be fufficient to leave an interval of eight
feet between them every way ; but, upon declining ground, two feet
lefs. But we are of opinion, that this fhould be dJne when ’the moon
is declining for this thing frees the corns from weeds. But a jugerum
of land, which is dunged thicker, requires twenty-four loads ( i ), and

that

(i) Vehet Jlercority a load of dung, Columella fays, contains eighty modii, lib. xi. cap. 2.
Eac i mo ins contained li^een Jcxtarii, and a fextarius isfuppofed to contain twenty ounces

1 2 of

60 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II

that which is thinner eighteen. It is proper, that the dung, after it is
fpread, be prefently plowed in, and covered with earth, that it may
not lofe its ftrength by the exhalation of the fun* and that the ground,
being mixed with it, may grow fat with the forefaid nourifhment :
therefore, when the heaps of dung are laid in order upon the land, a
greater number of them ought not to be fcattered, than the ploughmen
are able to plow down and put under ground the fame day.

CHAP VI.

Of the fever al Sorts of Seeds.

FORASMUCH as we have taught you to prepare the earth for the
feed-time, we (hall now treat of the feveral forts of feeds. The
chief and the mod: profitable corns for men are common wheat (i), and

bearded

of rain-water ; fo that a modius contained about three hundred and twenty ounces, or
twenty-fix 'Roman pounds eight ounces of rain-water : by which computation we may judge
of the capacity of a modius , wherewith they meafured their dung. The learned Dr. Ar~
butbnot , who has carefully examined the Roman meafures, both liquid and dry, fays, that
the modius was equal to i peck 7 folid inches and parts of an inch, or in other words,
1.0141 peck Englifh meafure.

(1) Triticum , common bare wheat, which has very little husk upon it, was, according
to Varro , a name given formerly to all forts of grain beaten or bruifed out of ears by tri¬
turation or threfhtng ; but afterwards it was given to a peculiar fpecies of grain, of which
there are many forts, which take their name from the places where they grow ,• as Afri-
t an , Pontic , Affyrian , Thracian , Egyptian, Sicilian , &c. which differ from one another in
colour, bignefs, and other properties, too tedious to relate. One fort has its ears without
beards, and is either of winter or fummer. Another fort is armed with long beards, and
grows up fometimes with one, fometimes with more ears. Of thefe the grains are of dif¬
ferent forts : fome of them are white, fome reddifh, fome round, others oblong, fome large,
others fmall. Some forts are early ripe, others late in ripening; fome yield a great increafe,
fome are hungry, and yield little ; fome put forth a great ear, others a fmall. One fort
ftays long in the hofe (folliculo) ; another frees itfelf very foon out of it. Some have a
fmall ft alk or ftraw ; others have a thick one, as the African. Some are cloathed with
few coats, fome with many, as the Thracian. Some grains put forth only one ftalk, fome
many ftalks. Some require more, fome lefs time to bring them to maturity. For which
reafon fome are called trimefirian , fome bimejlrian ; and they fay, that, in Euboea, there
is a fort, which may be brought to perfection in forty days; but moft of thefe forts,
which ripen in a fhort time, are light, unfruitful, and yield very little, tho’ they are fweet
and agreeable to the tafte, and of eafy digeftion. Theophrafus adds, that the wheat of
Pontus was the lighteft, and the Sicilian the heavieft, of any brought into Greece ; but
fays, that that of Bceotia was heavier ; and that the athleta could not eat fo much of it
as of that of Attica. The caufe of all thefe differences, he fays, is in the climate, and
the foil. Pliny , hijl. nat. lib. xviii. c. 7. prefers the Italian wheat to all thefe; and fays,
that none is to be compared to it in whitenefs and weight, by which it is moft diftin-
guffhcd ; and that foreign wheat was only to be compared to that, which grows in moun-

4 tainous

Chap. VI. 0/ H USB AN D R Y. 6t

bearded wheat (2). We have known feveral kinds of common wheat ;
but of thefe we mull chiefly fow what is called the red wheat , becaufe
it excels both in weight, and in brightnefs. The white wheat mull be
placed in the fecond rank, of which the beft fort in bread is deficient
in weight. The trimeflrian (hall be the third, which Hufbandmen are
mighty glad to make ufe of ; for when, by reafon of great rains, or any
other caufe, the early fowing has been omitted, they have recourfe to
this for their relief (It is a kind of white (3) wheat). The other forts
of wheat are altogether fuperfluous, unlefs any man has a mind to in¬
dulge a manifold variety, and a vain-glorious fancy. But, of bearded
wheat, we have commonly feen four forts in ufe; viz. that which is call¬
ed Clujinian (4), of a fliining, bright, white colour; a bearded wheat,

tainous places in Italy. And that this Was the common opinion of Greece above 143
years before the 'time of Alexander the Greats he proves from Sophocles’ s TriptolemuSy
where he calls Italy fartunatam frumento candidoy fortunate for its white corn; and he
fays, that, in fome pates of Italy, one plant has been feen to bear twenty-four ears ; and
that, in fome places, the land is fo fruitful, that one modius has produced a hundred. He
fays, that of all foreign wheat the Boeotian was the beft, next that of Sicily , and then the
African. The Thracian was the third for weight, next the Syrian, and then the Egyptian ;
and that the lighteft wheat brought to Rome was that of Gaul , and of the Cherfonefus , not
exceeding 20 pounds the modius , which amounted to 240 Roman ounces, i. e. 18 pounds
25 ounces Troy weight, the English peck ; that the Sardum wheat (I fuppofe he means Sardi¬
nian) weighed half a pound more ; the Alexandrian and Sicilian modius weighed 20 pounds
10 ounces; the Boeotian 21 pounds; the African 21 pounds 9 ounces, all Roman weight,
weighing only the pure grain. According to the weight of the wheat was the quantity of
bread made out of it; and that it is a fettled thing, that a modius of any wheat whatfoever,
made into ammunition-bread, weighs always one third more than the grain ; and that that
is the beft corn, which takes a congius , or ten pound weight, of water to knead it.

(2) Adoreum far. Columella fometimes mentions thefe two words conjundfly, Ibme-
times feparately ; and, when feparately, he ufes them as fynonymous. Authors do not
agree what particular fort of corn this far figmhes; but it appears probable, that it was a
kind of husked bearded wheat. The antients called it adoreum , becaufe they ufed it in
fomefacred ceremonies. Our author affigns this as a difference between the adoreum and
the triticum , that the firft has a firm and durable husk, and will bear moifture a long time,
without fuftaining any hurt ; and, cap. 9. of this book, he fays, that a jugerum of land requires
almoft double the quantity of adoreu?n more than it does of triticum.

(3) Siligo. Pliny fays, that this is the moft delicious and the daintieft of any fort of
wheat, exceeding white, but without much fubftance or ftrength, only proper for moift
tracts of land, fuch as thefe of Italy, and fome parts of Gaul ■ that it never ripens equally;
and that there is no fort of corn that fuffers delay lefs, becaufe it is fo tender, that fuch
ears of it as are ripe prefemly fhed their grains ; but, in the ftalk, it is in lefs danger than
any other corn ; for it holds its ear always upright, and does not contain the dews, which
occafion blafting and mildew.

(4) Far clufnum, ftrong bearded wheat, which grew about Clufum, a very antient town
in Tufcany, now called Chiufi. It was one of the fit ft Tufcan colonies, and the feat of king
Porfenna , who Tided with Tarquinius Superbits againft the Romans. It is about twenty miles
from Peruggia , and ten from the lake Trafimenus. It is very little inhabited now, becaufe
of the badnefs of the air. Pliny fays, that he has known a modius of this fort of corn
weigh twenty-fix pounds.

which

62

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II

which is called venuculum (5). One fort of it is of a firy red colour,
and another fort of it is white •, but they are both heavier than thcClu-
fmian. The trmefrian feed, or that of three months growth, which
is called halicafirum ( 6 ) ; and this is the chief both for its weight and
goodnefs. But thefe forts, both of ordinary common wheat, and of
bearded wheat, mu ft, for this reafon, be kept by Hufbandmen, becaufe
it rarely happens, that any land is fo fituated, that we can content our-
felves with one fort of feed, fome part of it happening, contrary to our
expedition, to be either wet or dry. But common ordinary wheat
thrives beft in a dry place; and bearded wheat is lefs infefted by moifture.

CHAP. VII.

Of the feveral Sorts of Pulfe.

S there are very many forts of pulfe or legumes, the moft accept¬

able, and thofe which we fee men make moft ufe of, are beans ,

lentils , peafe , kidney-beans , tares , hemp-feed , millet , panic , fefam , lu¬
pins , linfeed alfo, and barley , becaufe ptifan is made of it. Alfo the
beft of fodder for cattle are clover-grafs, fenugreek, and vetches. Then
next to thefe are chichlings and bitter vetches, and forrage which is of
barley (1). But we {hall firft treat of thofe which are fown upon our

own

($) It is very difficult to determine what the author means by far ’venuculum. In the
xith book, cap. 2. he calls it far vernacuhnn , true Italian bearded wheat. He makes
mention of a vitit venncula or vemcula , which fome call venuncula, from Venufia a town
in Apulia. But it is ftrange, that it is not rather called far Venufnum, if he meant corn
growing near this place. No doubt he intended to exprefs a kind of wheat peculiar to
fome place or other, not eafy now to determine.

(6) Trimeflrian feed , called halicafirum. I don’t find in Pliny , or any other author in
my hands, why this feed of three months growth is called ha/icajlrum. Perhaps it may be
fo called, becaufe of this fort of wheat they made that gruel or Pupping- if uff they called
alica, and that it ought to be written alicafrum , without any afpiration. They made this
alica of zeia , which is the fame with far , which I fuppofe to be bearded and husked
wheat. Pliny , lib. xviii. cap 5. mentions alica as a fort of grain proper to be Town in the
fpring; and, both in that place, and lib. xxii. felt. 16. edit. Parif. by Hardouin, he takes it
for that fort of grain, of which they made the gruel they called alica', which word feems
to fignify both that liquor, and the wheat of which it was made; and it feems to be fo
taken by Cato, cap . 76.

(1) Farrago feems to be derived from far. Feflus fays, that fodder for cattle, of feve¬
ral forts of corn, cut for that purpofe, was fo called, as wheat, barley, tares, <&c. Pro¬
bably this fort of food was called farrago, becaufe th efar, or husked bearded wheat, was
the chief ingredient in this mixture of feveral forts of green corn. Somecimes it is called

4

ocymum

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 63

own account, being mindful of that moft antient precept, which advifes
us to fow laft in cold places, fooner in warm, and fooneft of all in fuch
as are hot. But now we fhall give directions, as if it were for a tem¬
perate climate.

CHAP. VIII.

Of the proper Time for fowing.

OUR poet is of opinion, that bearded wheat, as alfo other com¬
mon wheat, ought not to be fown before the pleiades (i) fetj
which very thing he exprefies in numbers thus :

(2) ‘ If for rich crops of wheat, and flrong bread-corn,

4 Thou plow’ll the ground, if corn’s thy only care,

* Firh let king Atlas daughters hide their heads
* At dawning of the morning.’

They are hid from our fight the thirty-firll day after the autumnal equi¬
nox, which falls almoft upon the 23d of September 3 by which we
ought to underhand, that the wheat feed-time confihs of forty-fix
days -y viz. from the fetting of the pleiades , which happens before the
24th of OBobery to the time when the days are at the lhorteh: j for fo
prudent Hulbandmen obferve it as a rule, neither to plow, nor to prune
a vine, nor a tree, for fifteen days before the fhorteh day falls out, nor
for as many days after it is pah. We alfo are in no manner of doubt,
but this is the proper feafon for fowing our feed in land that is tempe¬
rate, and not all moih ; but in places that are oufy, and meagre or cold,

ocymum or ocmuirty as Varro fays, lib. i. cap. 31. becaufc it grows up quickly. But pro¬
bably ocymum fignifies a mixture of green bean-ftalks, fitches, tares, and fuch-like, as bear-
pods. But farrago properly fignifies a mixture of wheat, barley, and fuch forts of corn as
bear ears, and not pods. Both Columella and F'liny fay, it may be made of green barley
alone. The word, which originally fignified a mixture of feveral forts, was afterwards ufed
to exprefs one fort; viz., farrago exhordco} forrage of green barley. Probably from this
word comes the French word four age, and the Essglifb word forrage.

(1) Fleiades are the (even ftars in the neck of the conftellation or fign taurus (the
bull). They were called by the Romans vergiliaiy becauie they rife in the fpring, about
the time of the equinox. The Greeks called them pleiades , from TA«<y, to fail, becaufe
their riling pointed out the proper time for failing in thole days. The poets feign them
to have been daughters of Atlas king of Mauritania j a great afironomer ; and that, being
placed in the heavens, they were called Atlantidss,

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. i. 219.

64 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

or in fuch only as are not expofed to the fun, for the moft part, it is
proper to fow about the i ft of October (3),

4 While th’ earth's dry date and pendent clouds permit

that fo the roots of the corns may grow ftrong, before they be infefted
with winter-fhowers, frofts, or hoar-frofts.

But fuppofe the feed be fown in due time, yet care mud be taken to
make wide diftances between the ridges, and frequent water-furrows,
which fome call drains or gutters, and fo convey all the water out of
the corn-lands into drains. Nor am I ignorant, that fome antient au¬
thors have directed, that lands fhould not be fowed till the earth be
throughly wet with rains, which, I don’t doubt, is for the advantage
of the Hufbandman, if they come in due time ; but if, as it falls out
fometimes, the rains come late, it is right to commit the feed to the
ground, tho’ it be thirfty ; and this is alfo prattifed in fome provinces,
where the conftitution of the climate is fuch : for feed caft into a dry
place, and harrowed in, does not rot, more than if it were laid up in a
barn ; and, when a fhower comes, what has been fown many days be¬
fore rifes up in one day.

Tremellius indeed affirms, that feeds fown before it has rained plen¬
tifully, are confumed by the fowls and ants, where the land is much
dried by abundance of fair weather in fummerj and this we have often
found, and ftill find, to be true. Neverthelefs bearded wheat is more
fit to be fown in this fort of land, than common wheat, becaufe it has
a hulk wherein it is contained, which is firm and durable again# moi-
fture of any long continuance.

CHAP. IX.

How many Modii of Seed a Jugerum of Land requires \ and

of the Cure of Seeds.

A 'Jugerum (1) of fat land requires, for the mod: part, four mo¬
dii (2) of ordinary common wheat; but, of middling land, five.
If the foil is fertile, it requires nine modii of bearded wheat ; if it is

middling,

(3) Virg. Georg, lib. i. 214.

( j) The jugerum was the mod Common meafurc of land amongd the Romans. It con¬
tained 28,800 Roman fquare feet; and, compared with the EngliiJ} acre, which contains
4;, 560 fquare feet, is very near as 10 to 16 , as has been faid already.

(2) The modius was the larged common meafure of capacity for things dry mentioned

by

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 65

middling, .it requires ten : for altho’ authors are not fully agreed about
the quantity, yet our own experience has taught us, that this quantity
feems to be what is molt proper. But, if any one refufes to conform
to this, let him follow the precepts of thole, who direct him to fow
upon every jugeram of very fertile champain land five modii of common
wheat, and eight of red bearded wheat; and they are of opinion, that
feed mud be allowed to middling lands in this proportion.

We are not indeed of opinion, that the quantity we have before
mentioned ought always to be obferved • for either the Bate and condi-

by our author. One easy have very nearly an exact idea of the fize of it, by comparing
it with meafure* of capacity for things liquid, whofe capacities are very exactly adjuited.

Rhemnus Fannins fays, it was the third part of the amphora or fuadrantal, which was a
meafure of a cubic form, the dimenfionS of the infide of which was a foot every way ;
and it was kept in the Capitol for a ftandard, and contained 80 pounds of rain-water; to
confequently the modius contained 26 pounds 8 ounces of rain-water.

The fame Rhemnus Fannins fays, thac it contained 16 fextarii. The fextarius was the
fixth part of the congius , and from this it had its name. It is clear from feveral authors,
that the congius-, which was the eighth part of the amphora , contained 10 pounds of rain¬
water: fo the fextarius contained 20 ounces; and confequently the modius contained 26
pounds 8 ounces, which come to about 24 pounds Troy weight : fo that, if a veffel were
made, containing this weight of clear rain-water, it would ftiew the capacity of the mo-
dius pretty exa&dy.

There is another way of guefling at the capacity of the modius , which may be gathered
from Pliny-, lib. xviii. cap. 7. where, comparing different forts of wheat, he fays, that a
modius of Gallican wheat weighed about 20 Roman pounds, which is in Engl if 0 Troy weight
18 pounds a ounces and a half; that a modius of Alexandrian and Sicilian wheat weighed
20 pounds 10 ounces, which make 18 pounds 8 ounces Troy weight; with feveral other
forts not needful to be mentioned : fo that, if a veffel were made, containing fuch a
weight of the beffc and hardeft wheat, it muft come very near the Roman modius. But the
exadt way to determine the capacity of it, is to confiderit as the third part of the amphora.
The learned Dr. Arbuthnot makes ic a little more than one peck IVinchefer meafure.

Here it may be neceffary to obferve, how carefully the author adjufts the quantity of
feed of different forts of grain to be Town on th ejugerum, varying it according to the qua¬
lity of the ground ; and, by obferving the proportion th ejugerum bears to the Englifh acre3
which, as has been often faid, is near as 10 to 16, we may know the quantity, which, ac¬
cording to this author, ought to be Town in an acre of ground. We lhall mention a fey?
inftances :

5 Modii of wheat ------

6 Modii of barley of two rows of grains

6 Modii of beans - - - - - -

3 Modii of peafe ------

Which in E ngliflo meafure is

Bufh. Pecks.

2 o-j- Wheat

2 1 £ Barley

2 1 £ Beans

1 ojj; Peafe

From the forefaid quantities and proportions one may eafily know the proportions of
the other forts of feed of different grains mentioned in this chapter.

K cion

per acre.

}

to the jugerum.

66 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

tion of the place, or of the feafon of the year, or of the climate, makes
an alteration in it. The condition of the place makes it vary , when we
fow the corn either in plains or upon hills ; and thefe either fat, or mid¬
dling, or lean. The ftate of the time or feafon varies it, when we fow our
feeds in autumn, or when the winter is near at hand ; for the former
part of the feed-time allows us to fow thinner, but the latter part re¬
quires it to be thicker. The ftate and condition of the climate or wea¬
ther makes it to vary, when it is either rainy or dry ; for that (/. e. the
rainy) requires the fame as the former part of the feed-time, and this
(/. e . the dry) as the latter part of it. But all forts of com thrive bed:
in open, wide, champain land, declining and Hoping towards the fun,
and expofed to the heat of the fame, and of a loofe open foil ; for hilly
ground, tho’ it may yield fomewhat ftronger wheat, yet not in fo great
quantity. Thick, chalky, and oufy ground nourifhes the white winter
wheat, and the husky, red, bearded wheat, tolerably well.

Barley does not bear with any place, but what is open, loofe, and
dry ; and thofe require the very richeft land, and that which reds and
is agitated or laboured by turns every other year : this, viz. barley,
requires no mediocrity ; for it is thrown either into the fatted or the
leaned ground. Thofe, if, after continual fhowers, if neceflity re¬
quires, you fcatter them upon ground that is yet dimy and wet, wilL
fupport the injury : this, if you commit it to miry ground, intirely
dies. But if the land is tolerably chalky and oufy, but not to a very
great degree, there will be occadon for a little more of the common
wheat, and of the white winter wheat, for feed, than five modii , as I
faid before. But if the place be dry, and loofe, and open, and the fame
be either fat, or thin, and lean, four modii will be necefiary (3). For
lean ground, for a contrary reafon, requires the fame quantity of feed;
for, unlefs it be fown very thin, it brings an empty fmall ear : but
when, from one grain of feed, many dalks fhoot out, tho’ the feed be
thin fown, yet the corn will grow up very thick.

Among other things alfo, we ought not to be ignorant, that land,
planted with trees for fupporting vines, requires a fifth part more feed,
than that which is open, and free from trees. And we are Hill fpeak-
ing of the autumnal fowing j for we reckon this the principal and the
befi:.

(3) When the ground is fat, commonly feveral ftalks grow up from one grain; and
the reafon he gives, why no more of this feed is to be fown upon lean ground, is, becaufe,
if a greater quantity were fown, it would not have ftrength enough to nourifh all the
ftalks.

But

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 67

Bat there is another or fecond fowing, when neceftity forces. Huf-
bandmen call it the trimeftrian / owing (4). This is pradftifed to very
good purpofe in very cold and fnowy places, where the fummer is wet,
and without great heats ; but, in other places, it very rarely anfwers:
which trimeftrian fowing, neverthelefs, it will be proper to difpatch
and finifti very quickly, and, without fail, before the Equinox. But,
if the condition of the lands, and of the weather, will allow it, the
fooner we fow, the better it will grow, and the more increafe we fhall
have j for there is no feed by nature trimeftrian, as fome have believed,
becaufe the fame feed, fown in winter, anfwers better. But neverthe¬
lefs there are fome feeds better than others, which endure the heats of
the fpring, as white wheat , and Galatian barley (y), and that kind of
husked bearded wheat, which they call halicajlrum , and the grain of
the Marifcan bean : for, in temperate climates, the other corns ought
always to be fown before winter.

But fometimes the earth ufes to vomit up a fait and bitter oufinefs,
which, with its continually flowing noxious moifture, fpoils and de-
ftroys the ftanding-corn, tho’ they be almoft ripe, and makes broad

(4) Trimeftrian feed is a fort of wheat, which they fow in the fpring, and which grows
up and comes to perfection in three months. Columella fays, that there is no feed natu¬
rally trimeftrian. Pliny contradicts this, lib. xviii. and fays, that there are fome feeds or
forts of wheat, which ripen not only in three, but in two months. But, as father Har-
douin fays very juftly, Columella does not deny, that there is fuch a feed ; but only fays, that
it is not different from that, which, if fown in autumn, comes up better, and produces
more.

(5) Ordeum Galaticum. Palladius calls this fort of barley grave <& candidum , heavy and
white ; and advifes to low it in cold places about the firft of March , but in very warn*
places about the 13th of January. Probably it was a corn brought from Galatia , a pro¬
vince of the Lejfer Afta , and from thence had its name. This, and the Phrygian barley,
were much commended for their whitenefs, and yielding much meal. Pliny fays, that
fome ears had two rows of grains, fome more, even as far as fix; and that there were
fome differences in the grains themfelves, fome longer, fome fliorter, fome rounder, fome
whiter, fome blacker, and fome of fomewhat of a purple colour ; that the whiter fort was
the leaft able to fupport tempeftuous weather; that barley was the tendereft of all corns,
and was not fit to be fown but in loofe and dry ground. That which approaches to a purple
colour is reckoned to yield more meal, and is more able to refift all the changes of the
weather. See Theophraft. hift. plant, and Plin. lib. xviii. c. 7.

Ordeum cantherinum , horfe-barley. Cantherius fignifies a gelding. Probably this fort
of barley is fo called, becaufe it is good for horfes, as Columella feems to infinuate. But
Matthiolus upon Diofcorides , c. 79 . p. 321. thinks it is fo called, quia folliculo caftratum
enafcitur ; by which, no doubt, he underftood, that it came out of its hofe free from
husks, or much cleaner than other forts of barley ; for Pliny makes ufe of this word caftraref
in feveral places, for cleanfing and freeing the wheat from its husks, as caftrata filigo , &c.
And Matthiolus adds, that it grows chiefly in France ; and that they call it there clean bar¬
ley, ordeum mundum , becaufe it falls from its husks of its own accord ; whereas the other
forts are, with difficulty, feparated from it : that the whiteft fort of barley is the beft,
which is plump, weighty, and is eafily boiled : and that the Galatian is the whiteft and
heavieft of any, and has two rows of grains.

K 2 plots

68 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IF.

plots of ground intirely bare, without fo much as one flalk from all the
feed that was fown upon it. It is proper, that marks fhould be fet upon
thefe bare plots, that, at a proper time, we may cure difeafes of this
kind ; for where either this oufinefs, or any other peft, intirely kills
the corn, there we ought to fpread pigeons dung, or if this cannot be
had, cyprefs-leaves, and then plow them into the ground. But the
principal remedy of all is, to make a deep furrow, and thereby drain
and convey from thence all the moifturej otherwife the forefaid reme¬
dies will be ufelefs, and have no effetft.

Some cover the feed-balket with the fkin of an Hyena (6), and fo fow
the feeds out of it, after they have remained in it a little time, not
doubting, but what is fown in this manner will grow up, and come to
perfection. Some fubterraneous pelts alfo kill the corns after they are
fully grown up, by confuming their roots. To prevent this, they ufe,
as a remedy, the juice of an herb, mixed with water, which rullics
call HouJleek(j ) ; for they fow the feeds, after fteeping them one night
in this medicament. Some people fqueeze out the juice of a ferpentine
cucumber (8), andbruife the root of it, and dilute the fame with water j
and after having, in the fame manner, foaked the feeds therein, com¬
mit them to the earth. Others, when the corn begins to be infefted,
fpr inkle the furrows with this fame water, or with unfalted lees of
oil (9), and fo remove the noxious animals.

I have

(6) Hyena. This is a beaft refembling a wolf, with a mane, like a horfe’s, reaching all
along its back. See Ariflotle de hijloria anitnalium , and JEliaris maria hijloria. Pliny , in
his viiith book, cap. 30. gives a particular account of it, and relates many particulars con¬
cerning it, which probably few people will believe till they fee them. There are many
of them in Phrygia ; but they are more numerous in Africa ; and they, who want to hear
many ftrange things of them, may confult the forementioned authors.

(7) Sedan!) in Greek called di'fuov, becaufe it lives always, houileek, or ay- green,
grows upon tiles or boards, but belt upon thatched houfes. Our author, lib. xi. fays, that
certain of the antients, as Democritus, 6cc. direct all feeds to be medicated with the juice
of this herb, and to ufe the fame as a remedy againft little beafts, which deftroy the roots
of the corn ; and that he found this to be true by experience. Pliny fays the fame, lib.
xviii. c. 17.

(8) Cucumeris anguinei , Terpentine cucumber. In fome countries there is a fort of cu¬
cumber, which grows long, and fomewhat winding like a ferpent. Lobelias calls it cucu-
mis flcxuofus , the winding cucumber, fo called, no doubt, from the lliape of its fruit,
it is alfo called by the Latins cucurnis fylveflris , erraticus , and a [minus, as Pliny fays j and
of the infpiiTated juice of this they make what they call elaterium , in officinal preparations,
humor colleffus , in foie ficcatus , in paflillos [nr. at us.

(9) Amurca infulfa , unfaked lees of oil. Varro , de re rujlica, lib. i. cap. 64. calls it
humor aquatilis ex olea expreffus , and loumor aquatiiis & retrimentum. ft is the watery
juice which flows out or' the olive-berries, when they are firfl: fqueezed in the prefs, and
comes before the oil. He calls it retrimentum , the refufe and ofF-fcouring of it; and,
tho’ we call it dregs , yet it is really different from the fedimenc in the bottom of oil-

veffels.

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY.' 69

I have this further direction to give, that, when the corns are cut
down, and brought into the threfhing-floor, we flhould even then think
of making provilion of feed for the future feed-time ; for this is what
CelJ'us lays, where the corn and crop is but fmall, we mufl pick put all
the beft ears of corn, and of them lay up our feed feparately by itfelf.
On the odier hand, when we {hall have a more plentiful harvelt than,
ordinary, and a larger grain, whatever part of it we threfh out, muft>
be cleanfed with the fievej and that part of it, which, becaufe of its
bulk and weight, fublides, and falls to the bottom of the fieve, mufl
always be referved for feed ; for this is of very great advantage, becaufe,
unlefs fuch care be taken, corns degenerate, tho’ more quickly indeed
in moift places,, yet they do fo alfo in fuch as are dry. Nor is there,
any doubt, but that, from a flrong feed, there may be produced that
which is not flrong ; but that, which at firfl grew up fmall, it is ma~
nifeft, can never receive flrength, and grow large: therefore Virgil ,
as of other things, fo of this particular concerning feeds, has reafoned :
excellently, and expreflc J himfelf in this manner :

(10) c I’ve feen the largefl feeds, tho’ view’d with care,

‘ Degenerate, unlefs th’ induflrious hand
4 Did yearly cull the largefl. Thus all things,

‘ By fatal doom, grow worfe, and, by degrees,

‘ Decay, forc’d back to their primevous ftatef

But, if we take a grain of wheat of a bright red colour, and cleave
it in two, we don’t doubt but it is found, if it have the fame colour in¬
wardly ; but that which is whitilh on the outfide, and inwardly appears
very white, ought to be looked upon as light, and without any fub-
flance. Nor let the white wheat deceive us, as if Hufbandmen were to

veflels, which the word dregs commonly fignifies. The antient Husbandmen made great
account of this amurca , and ufed it many different ways, as may be feen in our author.
They put it up in veflels as carefuliy as they did oil or wine; they ufed to boil it in two-
thirds ; and, after ic was cold, they put it up in veflels ; they ufed to moiften and feafon
all their oil-veflels with it, that they might not drink up the oil ; they prepared their threfh-
ing-floors with it, in order to drive away the ants, and to keep them from chapping; as
alfo their barn-floors, and the plaiftering of their walls and granaries, they fprinkfed with
it; as alfo their wardrobes, to preferve their cloatbs from moths, and other noxious ani¬
mals ; they fprinkled all their feeds with it ; and with it they cured their difeafed cattle?
and trees alio ; they applied it to ulcers in the mouth ; they anointed with it their bridles
and flioeS, and other things made of leather, and of brafs alfo, to preferve them from ruft,
and to give them a fine colour; they alfo anointed with it all their wooden houfhold fur¬
niture, and earthen veflels, wherein they kept their figs, &c. All which, with feveral
other ufes to which they applied it, may be feen in this elegant ruftic writer.

(10) Virgil. Georg, lib. i. 197.

taker

jo L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

take any great pleafure in it ; for it is but common wheat degenerated,
and tho’ it excels it in whitenefs, yet it is far inferior to it in weight.
But, in a climate of a wet condieution, it grows up very well, and
brings a good increafe ; and therefore is fitted: for fuch places as are well
moidened with frequent rains. Nor yet need we go far to feek it, or
beat great pains to find it ; for all common wheat whatfoever, after the
third lowing upon oufy ground, changes into white wheat.

The next in ufe to thefe corns, is that fort of barley, which the coun¬
try-people call barley of fix rows. Some alfo call it horf e-barley , be-
caufe it both nourilhes other animals, which are kept in the country,
better than common wheat, and is more wholfome nourilhment for
man , than bad wheat j nor is there any other thing, which, in times
of fcarcity, better fupplies our wants, and is a greater relief to us, than
it. It is fown in dry and loofe ground, and in that which is either very
drong, or thin and lean, becaufe it is evident, that land grows lean and
barren by bearing crops of it j for which reafon it is committed either
to the fatted: land, whofe exceflive drength it cannot hurt, or to that
which is lean, to which no other thing is committed. If it be commit¬
ted to fat ground, it ought to be fown, after it has been twice plowed,
almod in the middle of the feed-time, after the Equinox : if to poor
flender ground, it ought to be fown earlier. Five modii of feed will
take up one jugerum of ground ; and, after it is a little ripe, it ought
to be cut down more quickly than any other corn ; for, being of a brittle
dalk, and its grain covered with no chafF, it quickly Iheds ; and, for
the fame reafons, it is more eafily threlhed than other corns. But, after
you have removed the crop it has produced, it is bed to let the ground
lie fallow for one year ; if not, to fatiate it with dung, and drive out all
the poifon that yet remains in the earth.

There is alfo another kind of barley, which fome call Galatian, others
barley of two rows. It is of an extraordinary whitenefs and weight; fo
that, when mixed with wheat, it makes excellent food for a family. It
is fown in the very fatted, but cold places, about the month of March.
Never thelefs it anfwers better, if the clemency of the winter allows it,
when it is fown about the 13th of January. A jugerum of land requires
fix modii of it.

Panic alfo and millet ( 1 1 ) mud be ranked among corns, tho’ I have
already afiigned them a place, and ranked them with legumes or pulfe ;

* for,

(n) Milium bears leaves like thofe of a reed, with a (talk two cubits long, thick, and
jointed, and wooly, with a vaft many roots, with panicles hanging down from the top of
it, in which there are avail many grains, fomewhat roundifh, folid, fmoorh, of a yellowifh
colour, covered with a chin coat. Feftus fays it is called milium a mtlliarijumma , as if it

conlifted

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 7i

for, in many countries, the Peafants are fupported with victuals macte
of them.. They require a light, loofe, open ground. They not only
grow very well, and bring a good increafe, in gravelly, but alfo in Tandy
ground, provided the climate be moift, or the ground be well watered j
for they greatly dread that which is dry and chalky. They cannot be
fown before the fpring, becaufe they thrive beffc, and rejoice moil:, in
warm weather. Neverthelefs they are very fafely committed to the
earth in the latter part of the month of March. Nor do they burden
the Hufbandman’s accounts with great expences ; for, with four fextarii
of them, they fill a jugerum of land. Neverthelefs they require fre¬
quent farcling or hoeing, and weeding, that they may be freed from
weeds. After they have put forth their ears, before the feeds open and
gape with the great heats, they gather them by hand, and hang them up
in the fun; and, after they are well dried, they lay them up very clofe;
and, being laid up in this manner, they keep longer without fpoiling,
than other corns. Bread is made of millet, which, before it grows
cold, may be eaten without any diflike. Panic, bruifed in a mortar,
and freed from bran, and millet alfo, in any time of fcarcity, make a
foop not at all to be difliked, efpecially with milk.

CHAR X.

Of the proper Soil for every hind of Pulfe ,

FORASMUCH as we have now given abundance of precepts re¬
lating to corns, let us next difcourfe of the feveral forts of pulfe.
Lupines (i) are firfl to be confidered, becaufe they require lead labour,

and

confifted of a thoufand grains. Pliny fays, that the locks of the millet, which contain the
grains, hang and bend downward, like fringes or hair, loofe and incompact. To this day
they make bread of it in Italy , which, when hot, is very agreeable.

Panicum is alfo ranked among the corns. It- is altogether like millet in its leaf, roor,
and ftalk; but differs from it in its panicles, which are a foot long, turning down towards
the earth, not feparated or divided, butcompa&ed into thick clutters, confiftingof hairy
or briftly grains. Pliny fays it is. called panicum, from its panicles, with their tops bending
downward in a languifhing manner. It putteth forth its fruit grape-wife in bunches, with¬
out any divifions or partitions, no otherwife defended but by fmall skins or membranes.
The ftalk groweth fmaller and fmaller by degrees, almoft as hard as wood. Some fay ic
is called panic uni, quafi panic vicium , quod vice panic fungatur, becaufe it lerves inftead of
bread, and men live upon it chiefly when there is a fcarcity of wheat.

(i) Lupinus or lupinum. Pliny fays, that they fow it prefently ex arvo , as foon as it
comes off the ground. Our author fays fiatim ex area ; by which they mean, that it may
be fown prefeptly after it is gathered in. It is fown not only for food, but alfo for dung¬
ing

2

72 L. J. M. COLU M ELLA Book II.

.and are bought exceeding cheap, and, of ail things that are fovvn, do

.moft good to land ; for they furnilh the bed; dung for emaciated vine¬
yards, and for corn-lands alfo, and they thrive well even in barren
ground, and, when laid up in the granary, will lad; an age. When
boiled and macerated, they nouridi oxen exceeding well during the
winter; and they very fealonably repulfe famine alfo, if men are fur-
prifed with a fcarcity of corn, and a dearth. They fow it prefently
out of the threlhing-fioor ; and, of all kinds of pulfe, thefe only require
no red in the barn; and, either in the month o i September before the
Equinox, or prefently after the drd of OStober , you may throw them
upon unplowed fallow-lands; and, how dightly foever you cover them
with earth, they. bear with the Huibandman’s negligence, without re¬
ceiving any damage. Neverthelefs they require warm weather in au¬
tumn, that they may take root quickly; for, if they have not gathered
drength before winter, they fuffer -very much by the colds. What
remains' of your feed, you will lay up bed in a loft where the fmoke
comes, becaufe, if any moidure reaches them, they breed worms, and,
as fcon as they have confumed the little mouths or buds of the lupines,
the remaining part cannot fpring up. They, as I faid, love poor lean
land, and efpecially red land, like oker ; for they greatly dread chalk,
a,nd don’t come forth at all in llimy or miry ground. Ten modii of
them take up on zjugerum of land.

After thefe, it will be proper to commit the kidney-bean (2) to the
earth, either in land that has lain fallow, or better in land that is fat,

ing land. It receives no hurt from peftiferous plants growing near it; for it deftroys all
other npxipus weeds whatfcever. tliny advifes to gather them after it has rained, becaufe,
when they are gathered very dry, they fhed, and fly from the reapers. Cre/centio , a Flo¬
rentine writer upon Husbandry both in Latin and Italian, fays, that they fow them at
different times, according to the ufe they make of them. If for dung, they fow them
early in Auguft ; after they are grown up, they cut them hard by the ground, throw them
into the furrow, fow corn upon them, and then plow the land over them ; and they fuf-
fice for dung not only for one year, but you may, the next year, fow corn upon the fame
land without dunging it. He adds, that they may be fown among panic after the fecond
hoeing; and, after the panic is taken aw3y, they may Hand to fatten the ground. It is
bed to fow them in October and November for a crop of feed. They mull neither be
weeded nor hoed; for they themfelves, as has been faid, deftroy all weeds, and, having
but one root, the hoe deftroys them.

(2) Phafeolus, a kidney-bean. The grains rcfemble the kidneys of four-footed beads.
They are very frequent in Italy , both in gardens, and in the open fields. Matthiolus ,
who deferibes the different kinds of them, diftinguifhed by their different colours, white,
reddifh, fpotted, fays, that the grains of the white are lefs than the others, and are
fown in the fields as other pulfe; but the other forts are fown in gardens, and other places,
where they want fhadcs; for, befldes yielding fruit in due time, they fhelter from the
fun ; for, with their tendrils, they climb up upon cottages, lodges, penthoufes, palifades,
tads, &c. and fpread like a vine, or any other fpreading vegetable.

4

and

Chap. X. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 73

and is plowed and Town every year. A jugerum of land requires no
more than four modii of it.

The fame method is to be obferved with refpect to peafe (3), which
neverthelefs require an eafy, loofe, open ground, and a warm place, and
a climate where it frequently rains. We may fow a jugerum of land
with the fame quantity of thefe as of kidney-beans, or a modius lefs in
the very beginning of the feed-time after the autumnal equinox.

The fatteft place, or that which is well dunged, is fet apart for the
bean (4), and if there be any old fallow-ground, of a low fituation,
which receives moifture from an higher part. Neverthelefs we will
firft fow the feeds, then till the ground, and, after it is tilled, reduce it
into ridges, and harrow it, that they may be covered with a larger quan¬
tity of earth, and lie deeper j for this is a very great advantage, that,
when the feeds fpring up, their roots may be funk very deep in the
ground. But, if we muft make ufe of land that bore a crop of corn
this very laft year, after we have cut down the ftubble, we will lay
twenty-four loads of dung upon one jugerum , and fpread it ; and like-
wife when we throw the feeds upon unplowed ground, we will plow
it in, and, after reducing it into ridges, harrow it ; tho’ there are lome
who deny, that beans ought to be harrowed in cold places, becaufe the
clods, which ftand up above the ground, fhelter them, while they are
yet young and tender, from the frofts, and afford them fome warmth,
when pinched with cold.

There are fome alfo who may think, that beans fupply the place of
dung; which I fo interpret, as to think, that the ground does not grow
fat by fowing them upon it ; but that they confume the ftrength of the

(3) Fifum. Matthiolus fays, that the pea has its name from Fifa , the place where for¬
merly they grew very plentifully. It may feem fuperfluous to give any defcriprion of a
thing fo well known ; but, as many people caft their eyes upon this, and other beautiful
vegetables, without forming any diftindt idea of them, it may not be amifs to bid them
obferve, that the pea grows up with a fiftulous branched ftalk, with many tendrils or clafpers
fhooting forth from their tops, with numerous longifh, thick, and flattifh leaves, with a
•cylinder-like pod, with a round and white feed. It puts forth a flower or bloffom in the
form of a butterfly, about the nevil or middle of a purple colour, fometimes wholly white,
with a weak root. The grains lie clofe upon one another in the pods. There are feve-
ral forts of them, which differ in colour, bignefs, &c. Husbandmen commonly fet branches
of trees among the greater fort to fupporc them. The fame author fays, that, in their
whole fubftance, they have a certain fimilitude to beans, but differ in two things ; viz.
that they are not fo flatulent, nor have they any detergent faculty; therefore they do not
pafs fo quickly as beans.

(4) Faba, the bean, is the greatefl: of all legumes. Some fow it for fattening the land,
and, when it begins to bloffom, they plow it down ; for, being a very juicy plant, when
it rots under ground, it fattens it very much. The greater it is, the more it is ftretched
out into length ; thelefler, the rounder it is. For the mod part, there are only three in a
pod, five at the mod, and that very rarely.

L earth

L

74 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

earth lefs than other feeds : for I am fully perfuaded, that the land
which did bear nothing, is titter for corns, than that which bore this
hufk the preceding year. Four modii of beans, as Fremellius thinks,
and, as we think, fix modii , will take up one jugerum of land, if the
foil be fat ; if it be middling, they will take up a little more. And they
can neither endure a place that is lean, nor that which is foggy ; never-
thelefs they often anfwer very well in thick clofe ground. A part of
them ought to be fown in the middle of the feed-time, and a part in the
latter end, which is called the feptimontial /owing (5). The early fow-
ing is more frequently the bell j fometimes neverthelefs the late is
better.

It is not very right to fow them after the winter folftice, and word;
of all in the fpring, tho’ there is alfo a trimeftrian bean, which grows
up and ripens in three months time, which is fown in the month of
February ; and of this a fifth part more feed is requifite, than of that
which is fown early j but it makes very fmall ftraw, and not many
pods : therefore I hear old Hufbandmen commonly fay, that they would
rather have the ftraw of the early-fown bean, than the whole produce
of the trimeftrian fowing. But, whatever time of the year it fhall be
fown in, care muft be taken, that the quantity we allot for feed be only
fown upon the fifteenth day of the moon, if neverthelefs, upon that
day, fhe fhall not run over and pafs the diredt rays of the fun, which
the Greeks call ct7rox.puaiv (6) ; if not fo, then let it be fown upon the
14th day, while the light is yet upon the increafe, tho’ we fhould not
be able to cover all the feed prefently ; for it will fufter no manner of
hurt from the night dews, or from any other caufes, provided it be
defended from the cattle and the fowls. But the antient Hufbandmen,
and alfo Virgil himfelf, were of opinion, that it fhould be fteeped be¬
fore-hand in lees of oil, or in nitre, and fo be fown,

(7) ‘ That, in the bean’s fallacious fhell, the grain
‘ Might bigger grow, when o’er a mod’rate fire
‘ The moiften’d feed is warm’d, but foon remov’d.5

(5) The feptimontial fowing was about the time they celebrated the feaffc they called
feptimontium, which was in the month of December , a little before the faturnalia. This
feaft was inftituted, as fome think, in remembrance of the feventh hill being taken within
the inclofures of, and added to, the city, at which time they offered their facrifices upon
feveral, if not all, of the feven hills j and then the Romans fent gifts to one another. It
was celebrated, not in a polite, but ruftic manner, as is ufual among villagers and moun¬
taineers, probably in remembrance of their primitive fimplicity.

(6) ’AvoKfbcr/c. When the moon paffes over the rays of the fun diametrically oppofite
to her, it is called doroKpua/f rtis SeAwrus ano/epua, i.e. repello , repulfo> as if the moon were
driven, as it were, from the fun, when flie begins to grow old or decreafe.

(7) Virgil. Georg, lib. i. 195.

We

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 75

We have alfo found by experience, that the bean, being cured after
this manner, when brought to maturity, was not fo much infeded by
the wevil.

Alfo what we are going to fay further, we lay it down as a precept
from our own experience ; viz. at the change of the moon, pull your
beans before day-light. Then, when they are fully dried in the threfh-
ing-floor, before it be full-moon, beat them out of their pods, and,
after they are cooled, bring them into the granary. When they are laid
up in this manner, they fhall fuffer no damage from the wevil. And
this, of all other forts of pulfe whatfoever, can be the mod expeditioufly
threfhed without horfes, and cleanfed without wind, in the following
manner: Let a fmall number of bundles be placed loofe at one extremity
of the threfliing-floor, the which let three or four men move forward
with their feet the whole length of the threfhing-floor, exactly through
the middle of it, and beat the fame with dicks or little forks. Then,
when they are come to the other extremity of the threfhing-floor, let
them gather the dalks into heaps ; for the feeds, that are beaten out, will
lie upon the threfhing-floor, and upon them the red of the bundles will
be beaten out by degrees in the fame manner ; and the harded chaff
will be removed and feparated by the beaters ; but the fmall, which
falls with the beans from the pods, and fettles with them upon the
threfhing-floor, will be fevered from them after another manner : for
when the heap, confiding of grain and chaff mixed together, fhall be
thrown together into one place, let it be thrown by little and little,
with fans, to another place at a good didance, by doing which, the
chaff, which is lighter, will fall on this fide ; the beans, which will
be thrown farther, will come pure and clean to the place whither the
winnower fhall throw them.

It is proper, that the lentil be fown in the middle of the feed-time,
when the moon is in her increafe, till her twelfth day, in a thin, lean-,
loofe foil, or in a fat and dry place efpecially ; for, in the flower, it is
eafily corrupted with luxuriance, or over-ranknefs and moidure. And,
that it may come forth the fooner, and grow big, they ought to be
throughly mixed with dry dung, and fcattered, after they have reded
fo four or five days.

We obferve two different times for flowing them ; the one early,
about the middle of the feed-time ; the other later, in the month of
February. A little more than a modius of them will fuffice for fowing
a jugerum of land. And, that they may not be dedroyed by the wevils,
(for they eat them even when they are in the pods) care mud be taken,
that, after they are threfhed out, they be put into water, and that the

L 2 firm

76

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book 11

firm and found be feparated from that which is empty, which prefently
fwims above. Then let them be dried in the fun, and fprinkled with
the root of Jtlphium (8), bruifed with vinegar, and let them be well
rubbed 5 and l'o, after they are dried in the fun a lecond time, and then
cooled, let them be laid up, if there be a greater quantity of them, in
a barn, if a lefler quantity, in oil jars, or any other vefiels, wherein
lalt-fifh or flelh have been kept; which being filled therewith, when
they are prefently covered with plaifter, whenever we fhall bring them
forth to ufe, we fhall find the lentils found. They may alfo, without
being cured after this manner, be preferred very well, if they be mixed
with allies.

Linfeed (9) muft not be fown, unlefs it brings a great increafe, in
that country where you cultivate it, and the price it bears invites you j

for.

(8) Silphium. Columella fays, lib. vi. cap. 17. that the root, which the Greeks call
filphium , was commonly called laferpitium in his time. Pliny fays, that it was found in the
province of Cyrene ; that they called the juice of it lafer ; that it was of mighty efteem in phy¬
tic, and fold for its weight in ftlver; but that, for many years, it had not been found there,
becaufe all the ftalks of it, as foon as they fprout up, were eaten by the cattle conftantly
kept upon thefe lands by thofe who farmed them of the public; that formerly the inha¬
bitants did not fuffer cattle to come where it grew. He fays, that it only grew wild, and
did not bear with culture; that it had a large thick root, a ferulaceous {talk, leaves very
like thofe of parfley ; that the feed of it, from its flatnefs, ( planitie ) was called its leaf ;
that the leaves of it were of a golden colour, and were inftead of its feed ; and that they
fell at the rifing of the dog-ftar, and from thefe the laferpitium fprung; that both the root
and the ftalk were perfected in one year; that they took the juice of it two ways, viz,.
from its ftalk, and from irs root; that the firft was far inferior to the fecond, and foon
fpoiled. Pliny gives a large account of this herb, nat. hifl. lib. xix. c. 3. of its feveral forts,
and the ufes to which it was applied, and of the ways of adulterating it; that the genuine
fort is of a moderately red colour, and, when broken, white on the infide, and prefently
afterwards becomes tranfparent ; that a drop or bit of it prefently diffolves in water or
fpittle ; that it is fomewhat like myrrh (epup n£av) ; that the true filphium was become fo
rare, that, in his memory, only one ftalk of it had been found, which had been fent to
Nero , which he valued fo much, that he kept it, with his gold and iilver, in his treafure,
snd produced it as a great curiofity (the words are, he brought it out of his treafure with
his gold and fiilxer ); that it was fo kept by the Cyrenians, that it could not be exported,
but by ftealch. The curious may compare the defcription that Pliny , Theophraftus , and
Galen , give of the filphium ox laferpitium of their days, and fee if it agrees with what they
call now by that name. It is ftrange, that our author fhould recommend the ufe of the
root of this herb for preferving lentils, feeing it was fo rare to be found ; but probably
the herb, which they commonly called laferpitium , was not the genuine filphium.

(9) Linum , flax. This is fo ufeful a vegetable to mankind, that, next to corn that fuf-
tains them, there is not any thing in nature of greater benefit to them. Pliny, in his
natural hifiory , fays, it is fown in gravelly places, in land once plowed ; that nothing
makes greater hafte; for it is fown in the fpring, and pulled in fummer. He mentions
many nations, who, in his time, made a traffick of flax, and manufactured it : Egypt par¬
ticularly was famous for it, and carried it into Arabia and India ; and, even in his time,
this manufacture was common throughout all Gaul ; and he fays, that the enemies of the
Roman empire, who lived beyond the Rhine, were very dextrous 3t it ; and that their wo¬
mens moft beautiful garments were made of flax: fo that, in his days, this ufeful manu¬
facture

Chap. X. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 77

for, above all other feeds, it is hurtful to lands: therefore it requires
the fatteft place, and moderately moift. It is fown from the firft of
Odiober till the riling of aquila (io) (the eagle), which is on the 7th of
December . A jugerum of land is fown with eight modii of it. Some
think it proper, that the feed be committed exceeding thick to lean
ground, that the flax may come up fmall and fine ; and they fay, that,
if it be fown in rich ftrong land, in the month of February , ten modii
of it muft be thrown upon one jugerum.

Stfamum (11), which is well watered, muft be fown earlier; but
fuch as is fown in land which wants moifture, muft be fown from the
autumnal equinox to the 1 yth of October. For the moft part, it requires
that crumbling, loofe, rotten ground, which the Campanians call black,
mould. Neverthelefs it does not thrive worfe in fat lands alfo, and in
ground gathered together from different places. And the fame quan¬
tity of this feed is fown upon a jugerum of ground, as of millet and
panic, and fometimes alfo two fextarii more. But I mylelf indeed have
feen this feed fown in the months of June and July in the countries of
Syria and Cilicia , and reaped in autumn, after it was fully ripe.

Chichlings, which are like to peafe, ought to be fown in the month
of January or February , in rich fertile ground, and in moift weather.
Neverthelefs, in fome parts of Italy, they fow them before the firft of
November. Three modii of them fill a jugerum of ground. Nor is there
any fort of pulfe which does lefs hurt to land ; but it very feldom an-
fwers, becaufe, in the bloffom, it can neither bear droughts, nor fouth
winds ; both which inconveniencies happen commonly at that time of
the year, when it begins to call: its blofl'oms.

What they call the ram-chich-pea (12), and that other fort, which

' they

failure Teems to have extended over all the Roman empire, and much farther. The ufe,
both of the husk, and of its feed, Teems to have been known many ages before in the
eaftern parts of the world, efpecialiy in Egypt, where the fineft linen in the whole world
was made long before the Reman empire made any figure in the world. The feed
of it affords an oil of very great ufe, not only in phylic, and many different trades, but
for burning alfo, being more durable in lamps than oil- olive.

(10) A^uila, the eagle, a conftellaticn of the northern hemifphere, commonly joined
with Antinous.

(11) Sefamum. Pliny fays, that it came firft from India, where they make great quan¬
tities of oil of it, not only for lamps, but alfo for eating. Theophraftus fays, that it has
a ftalk like millet, but thicker and higher, with red leaves, and grals-coloured flower^ ,-
and that its feed is fliut up in feed-veflels, like poppy-feed. And Pliny fays, that it has a
ferulaceous ftalk, a leaf of the colour of blood ; and chat the colour of the feed is white.
Tbeopbrajl. lib. viii. fays, that, of all feeds, it is the molt troubiefome to the ground, and
emaciates it moft.

(12) Cicer , a chich-pea. The Greeks call it IfifiivSef. Pliny fays, that it has a certain
faltifli juice or liquor peculiar to itfelf y which, Tbeopbrajl as fays, if too much rain w^fli

2 away,

78 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

they call th tPitnic or red chich-pea , can be Town all the month of March
in a moift climate, and in the fertileft ground j for it alfo hurts the
earth : and therefore the wifeft Hufbandmen difapprove of it. Never-
thelefs, if it is to be fown, it muff be fleeped the day before, that it
may fpring out the fooner. Three modii are fufficient for one juge-
ram.

Hemp (13) requires fat, well-dunged, and well-watered ground, or
that which is flat, moift, and manured very deep. They fow fix grains
of this feed upon a foot lquare, about the time that Ardiurus (14) xifes,
which is toward the latter end of February , about the 24th or 2 yth
day. Nor will it be amifs to fow it at any time till the vernal Equinox,
if the conftitution of the climate, or the weather, be rainy.

After thefe forts of pulfe, we muft take navews and turneps into con-
iideration ; for both of them fill the bellies of ruftics. Neverthelefs
turneps (15) are more ufeful, becaufe they both yield a greater increafe,

and

sway, it rots, and is deftroyed by the worms. There are feveral forts of it, as Pliny fays,
which differ in bulk, figure, colour, and tafte. There is one fort of it arietino capiti frniiley
like a ram’s head, which Columella calls cicer arietinum, and Theophrafius xp/oi i^ifi/vd-or and
of this Pliny fays there is both a black and a white fort. There is another fort, which they
called cicer columbinum , becaufe perhaps they fed doves with it. This they called alfo
cicer Venereum , becaufe they uied it in Venus s vigils. It was white, round, fmooth, and
.fmaller than the ram-chich-pea, as Pliny fays.

Cicercula , a chichling. It is a diminutive of cicer , a fmaller fort of chich-pea, ffiaped
like a pea. Pliny fays, that that is the fweeteft which is the likeft the bitter vetch j and
that the black and red is firmer than the white.

(13) Cannabis , hemp. Pliny fays, the thicker it is fown, the fmaller it is; therefore our
author advifes to fet fix grains upon a foot fquare of ground. When its feed is ripe, they
ftrip it off its ftalk about the autumnal equinox, and dry it in the fun, or wind, or in
the fmoke. The hemp itfelf is gathered after the vintage ,• fo that, it Teems, they gathered
the feed before they pulled the ftalks. There are two forts of it, the male and the female.
The male pours forth more branches from its ftalk, making the appearance of a little tree.
The female has much fmaller ftalks, and not branched as the other. Both male and female
have leaves like the afh-tree, but fmaller, and gradually ferrated. They are larger and
blacker in the male ; and five or fix of them come forth of one pedicle. The feed grows
only upon the male, of an afh-colour, the marrow of which is fweet and white. The
hemp that grows in Italy is reckoned very good, efpecially that of the territory of Bologna.

(14) Artturus , a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, fo called ano nric bvpp.s x) apum,
becaufe, Servius fays, it is placed after the tail of the Greater Bear. It is in the conftella-
tion Arllcpby/ax or Bootes.

(15) Rapujn , a turnep. Pliny fays, that, if due order were to be obferved, turneps
ought to be confidered next to corn, or at leaft beans, fince nothing is of more ufe; for
they grow for all animals : four-footed beafts delight in their leaves ; and men are as well
pleafed with their tender leaves in their feafon, as with fprouts ; and they are a great relief
when there is a fcarcity of corn, and often prevent a famine. He fays, that, after corn
and wine, they are the fruit, which the people, that live beyond the Po , have raoft in re-
.queft. They may be fown where almoft nothing elfe can be fown. They are nourilhed'
by the frofts, and fogs, and colds; and there are fome of them of a wonderful bignefs.
Pliny fays, he had feen fome that weighed 40 pounds; and fome authors affirm they

have

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 79

and they are food not only for man, but for oxen alfo, efpecially in
Gaul , where this kind of root affords nourifhment for the fore-
faid cattle during the winter. Both of them require a rotten, crum¬
bling, loofe foil, and don’t grow in thick clofe ground ; but turneps
thrive be ft in open plains, and moift lands. The navew (16) loves
land that is {helving and dry, and which comes nearer to that which is
lean and poor, therefore grows better in gravelly and fandy lands 3 and
the quality of the place changes the feeds of both the one and the other :
for, in a different foil, in two years time, turneps are changed into na-
vews, and navews affume the likenefs of turneps. In grounds that are
well watered, it is right to fow them both after the fummer folfticej
but in dry, in the latter end of the month of Augujl , or in the begin¬
ning of September. They require ground that is well manured over and
over again, either with the plough or the fpade, and fatiated with plenty
of dung j for this is of great importance, not only becaufe they come
forth better, and bring a greater increafe, but becaufe, after a plentiful
crop of them, ground, thus managed, bears excellent corn. There muft
not be more than four Jextarii of turnep-feed fown upon one jugerum
of land j and a fourth part more of navew- feed muft be fcattered upon
a jugerum of land, becaufe it does not fpread and inlarge itfelf into a
broad belly, but ftrik.es its {lender root downward. And thefe things,
we are of opinion, ought to be fown for the ufe of men, and thofe that
follow next for the ufe of cattle.

have feen fome of a much greater bulk : fo that it is not a little wonderful, that, of To
{mall a feed, there fhould grow, in three months time, fo great a root. It is common
to fee, among the Alps, fome of them weigh 30 pounds. The turneps about Nurjia, a
town of the Sabines, were in greateft efteem in our author’s days. The next are thofe
of mount Algido in xheTufcu/ast land, next to mount Albano , about 15 miles from Rome.
The Amiternian navews, which are of the fame nature with turneps, rejoice equally in
cold weather. Matthiolus fays, that in Injubria {viz. the ftate of Milan, and fome ad¬
jacent countries) they fow their turneps and navews as foon as the corns are taken off their
lands in June and July, and, in the month of October, when the root is grown to its
utmoft file, they pull it up. In Greek the turnep is called yoyyvto, from the round form
of its root.

(16) The napus, navew, is by fome thought to be what the Greeks called {hxvior but
authors differ about it. And indeed if the Greeks called this root by this name from
pSVcf, which fignines a little hill, or round rifing ground, it muff be different from the:
napus, which, our author fays, was not round.

C H A F.

k_.

Book II.

80 L. T. M. COLUMELLA

G H A P. XI.

Of the fever a! Sorts of Fodder , of Medic , V etches ,

Mifcelline , GV/Af, Fenugreek , the bitter Vetch ,
Chich-peafe (i).

THERE are many forts of fodder, as medic, vetches, mifcelline
or barley-fodder, alfo fenugreek (2) and oats, as alfo the bitter
vetch, and the chich-pea. As for the reft, we don’t think it worth
our while to enumerate them, and much lefs to fowthem. Neverthe-
lefs we except the cythijus (ftirub-clover) of which we {hall fpeak in
thofe books we have written of the feveral kinds of fprigs or plants of
trees. But, of all thofe that pleafe us, the herb medic (3) is the choi-

ceft,

(1) Gefneruc, in his notes upon our author, thinks, that the conftru&ion in the begin¬
ning of this chapter .confirms his opinion, that the prefent divifion we have of this author
into chapters was not made by Columella himfelfj otherwife he would have begun this
chapter in a different manner : and his opinion feems very well founded ; for there are
about ten accufatives without any verb to govern them, except you bring it from the laft
fentence of the foregoing chapter, which is not very common ; whereas, if there were no
new chapter, the conftrudtion would be natural enough ; and either fome word is want¬
ing, or the author intended it as the continuation of the fame fentence: fo that I have
tranflated them as if they were all nominatives, and added the fiibftantive verb.

(2) Farrago has been before explained. Pliny fays, that it was alfo made of the cleanfings
or refufe of the husked bearded wheat, and fometimes it had fitches mixed with it.

(3) Medica, medic. Father Hardouhi fays, it is now called great trefoil , or Burgundy
i bay , or luzern , more commonly faintfoin. Pliny calls it a foreign herb from Greece, and
fays, that it was brought thither by the Modes, during the Perfianvrw, in the time of Da¬
rker, and that it is of fo great value, that it deferves to be deferibed amongft the firft,*
for, from once fowing, it v/ill laft thirty years. Our author fays, only ten, and from him
Palladius. It has a jointed ftalk and leaves, like trefoil ; the higher it grows, the narrower
are the leaves : that the ground where it is fown muft be freed from ftones, and well
manured in autumn, then afterwards plowed, then harrowed twice or thrice, five days
intervening, and then dunged. It requires juicy land, or muft be well watered. It muft
be fown in May. All the ground muft be covered thick with feed; and all the weeds,
that grow amongft it, muft be plucked up. There muft be twenty modii of feed to a juge-
*um of land. If the ground be moift or weedy, it foon degenerates into meadow ground :
fo, when it is an inch high, it ought to be cleared of herbs, rather by hand than with a
farcle. They cut it when it begins to blofifom, and as often as it blofloms anew, which
it does fix times a year, at leaft four. It ought not to be fuffered to ripen into feed, be-
caufe the fodder of it is more ufeful, till it be three years old, and then it ought to be cut
clofe to the ground. Thus the other herbs perifh, while it fuffers nothing, becaufe of
the deepnefs of its roots. Matthiolus fays, that tho’ this medic was formerly fown for
fodder in all parts of Italy , and was known to every body, yet, in his time, he fcarcely
found any who ever had feen it, fo far were they from fowing it. They fay, that it
abounds in Sfain ; and Ruellius fays, it grows in France, and is there called the greater
trefoil or faintfoin. From a long, fmall, woody root come forth feveral little ftalks, a

cubit

or Tares ,
and the

Chap. XI. Of HUSBANDRY. 81

ceft, becaufe, when it is once fown, it lafts ten years ; and it can bear
to be cut down four times, and fometimes alfo fix times, in a year,-
becaufe it dungs the land* and all emaciated cattle whatfoever grow fit
with it, becaufe it is a remedy for lick cattle ; and a jugerum of it is
abundantly fufficient for three horfes the whole year. It is fown as we
fball hereafter diredt.

About the beginning of OEiober , cut up the place wherein you de-
fign to fow medic the next fpring ; and let it lie all winter to rot and
grow crumbly. Then, about the firft of February , plow it carefully
a fecond time, and carry all the ftones out of it, and break all the clods.
Afterwards, about the month of March , plow it a third time, and har¬
row it. When you have thus manured the ground, make it, in the
manner of a garden, into beds or divifions ten feet broad, and fifty feet
long, that fo it may be fupplied with water by foot-paths, and that
there may be an open accefs for the weeders on both fides. Then
throw old dung upon it ; and fo, in the latter end of April , fow it in
fuch a proportion, that each cyathus of feed may take up a place ten
feet long, and five broad. After you have done this, let the feeds,
that. are thrown into the ground, be prefently covered with earth with
wooden rakes ; for this is a great advantage to them, becaufe they are
very quickly burnt up with the fun. After the fowing, the place ought
not to be touched with an iron tool, and, as I faid, it mull: be raked
with wooden rakes, and weeded from time to time, left any other kind
of herb deftroy the feeble medic. You mull cut the firft crop of it
fomewhat later, after it has put forth fome part of its feeds. After¬
wards, you are at liberty to cut it down as tender and young as you
pleafe, after it is fprung up, and to give it to horfes ; but, at firft, you
muft give it them more fparingly, till they be accuftomed to it, left the
novelty of the fodder be hurtful to them; for it blows them up, and
creates much blood : but water it very often after you have cut it. Then,
after a few days, when it fhall begin to fprout, weed out of it all herbs
of a different kind. When cultivated in this manner, it may be cut
down fix times in a year ; and it will laft ten years.

cubit long, round, green, weak, and, for the mod part, lying on the ground, about which
grow leaves in the form of trefoil, firft broader, then lefter, oblong, and ferrated all round.
The flowers or blofloms come forth in the form of trefoils , in the wings of the leaves,
and form, as it were, a fpike, of a blue colour, to which fucceed pods refembling the Ihell
of a fnail, but narrower, and twiited like a ram’s horn, contracted into two or three
windings, which contain a minute, oblong, and yellowifh feed. It varies in its flowers,
which are blue, violet, purple-blue, and blackifh, &c. They fow it in Spain tor hay, and
cut it down every month in fummer. Thus far Pliny, and Matthio’us on Diofcondes.

82 L. J. M. C OLUME LL A Book II.

But there are two times for fowing vetches (4,); the firft fowing is for
fodder, when, about the time of the autumnal Equinox, we fow feven
rnodii of it upon one jugerutn. The fecond fowing is in the month of
ya?juaryt or even later, when we throw fix rnodii of it upon a juge-
rujny for producing of feed. Both thefe fowings may be made in un¬
plowed land, but better in that which is tilled. And this kind of feed
efpecially does not love dews when it is fown j therefore it muff be
fcattered after the fecond or third hour of the day, when all the moi-
flure is dried up by the fun, or the wind : and no more of it ought to
be thrown into the ground, than can be covered the fame day ; for, if
the night come upon us before it be put under-ground, the leaftmoifture
fpoils it. We muff obferve not to commit it to the earth before the
twenty-fifth day of the moon ; otherwife we commonly find, that the
fnail hurts it after it is fown.

It is proper to fow mifcelleny, or barley-fodder, in a place that is
plowed and fown every year, and exceedingly well dunged, and which
has had a fecond furrow. It turns out beft, when ten rnodii of horfe-
barley are fown upon one jugerum of land about the time of the autum¬
nal Equinox, but when the rains are impendent, that fo, being fown,
and watered with fhowers, it may come forth quickly, and take root,
and become ftrong, before the violence of the winter ; for, in cold
weather, when other forts of fodder fail us, this, when it is cut, is the
beft fodder we can give to oxen and other cattle ; and, if you fhall think
lit to let them feed upon it, and eat it down frequently, while it
is growing, it fufficeth till the month of May. But, if you have a
mind to reap fome feed of it alfo, the cattle muft be driven away, and
kept from it, after the firft of March ; and it muft be defended from
all harm, that it may be fit for producing a good crop of grain.

The fame method is to be obferved with refpedt to fowing of oats,
which, being fown in autumn, are partly cut for hay or fodder, while
they are yet green, and partly kept for feed. Fenugreek (5-), which

Peafants

(4) Ervum, ofojSar, bitter vetch. It is a plant with many fprays, full of leaves, lying

upon the ground, its ftalks and branches twifting and folding themfelves with one another.
Its leaves are fmall, fomewhat longiih, lefs than thofe of the lentil, many of them com¬
ing forth of one pedicle, riling out of it on each fide at fmall diftances, and one leaf by
itfelf on the top. It has fmall flowers, inclining fomewhat to purple, and fometimes to
white. It bears a husk almoft like the pea, but fhorter and flenderer, in which is inclofed
a round feed, the husk prefTed in clofe betwixt each grain. It is of two forts, white and
red. Some fay it is called opo.Scj ato tb vmo juv j3W, becaufe oxen feed on it,

and are fattened thereby.

(5) Fcenum Gr<ecum , fenugreek. This feed produces a plant like trefoil. It has its
leaves all ferrated, or jagged round, fmall ftalks, feveral of them coming forth from one
root, with fmall white flowers, from which come forth fmall crooked pods, like horns,

v ' in

Chap. XI. Of HUSBANDRY. 83

Peafants call filiqua (the hufk), has two feafons for fowing, of which
the firft is in the month of September (when it is fown for fodder) about
the time of the Equinox, the fame days on which they fow vetches.
The fecond is on the laft day of 'January , or on the firft of February ,
when it is fown for a crop of feed. But, in order to the firft, we fow
feven modii , and to the laft fix, upon one jugerum of ground. Both
thefe fowings are made not incommodioully on land before it is plowed;
and care muft be taken to plow it very clofe, but not deep; for, if its
feed is buried deeper than four fingers, it does not come forth eafily :
for which reafon fome people, before they fow it, till the ground with
the fmalleft ploughs, and fo throw the feeds upon it, and, with rakes,
cover them over with earth.

But the bitter vetch rejoices and thrives mightily in a lean, but not
in a moift place, becaufe, for the moft part, it rotteth, and is fpoiled
with luxuriancy. It may alfo be fown in autumn, and equally well
after the middle of winter, in the latter end of January , or during the
whole month of February , provided it be before the firft of March ;
which whole month Hulbandmen deny to be fuitable and agreeable to
this fort of pulfe, becaufe, when it is fown at this time, it is hurtful
to cattle, and efpecially to oxen, which it makes reftive and headftrong,
when they feed upon it, and eat it as fodder. They fow five modii of
it upon a jugerum.

In that part of Spain they call Ba?tica , they give bruifed chich-peafe
to oxen, inftead of bitter vetches; which, after they have fplit and
broken them flightly with the fufpended milftone, they fteep a little
in water, till they grow clammy, and fo mix them with chaff and
bruifed ftraw, and give them to the cattle. But twelve pounds of bit¬
ter vetches, and fixteen pounds of chich-peafe, fatisfy one yoke of
oxen. This fame is neither unferviceable nor unpleafant to men. In
tafte the chich-pea differs nothing from the chichling. It is only known
and diftinguifhed by the colour ; for the colour is more obfolete or
faded, and nearer to black. They fow them either after a firft or
fecond plowing, in the month of March , according as the richnefs of
the foil requires, becaufe four modii of the fame, and fometimes three,
and fometimes alfo two and a half, take up a jugerum of land,

in which is inclofed a yellowiih fat feed, of a difagreeable fmell. It is fown in fat ground
in February and March in warm tra&s of ground. From the form of its pod, it is called
by the Greeks (SvKipcts and aiyiKi^LS. Pliny calls it filica and flicia ; and fays, that the
earth muft only be fcarified when it is fown, the furrow not deeper than four inches;
and the work it is handled, fo much the better does it thrive: a very rare thing, that
negligence fhould be profitable to any thing whatfoever !

Mi chap;

84

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

CHAP. XII.

»

After what Manner , and with what Number of Labourer sr
each Sort of Corn and Pulfe may be cultivated.

FORASMUCH as we have fully treated of the time when every
thing muft be fown, now we (hall fhew after what manner, and
with what number of labourers, each of the things we have mentioned,,
muft be cultivated. After we have finished our fowing, our next care
is of farcling (1), concerning which authors are not agreed. Some
deny that it is of any lervice, becaufe the roots of the corn are laid open
and uncovered with the farcle, fome of them alfo are cut, and, if the
colds come upon them, and furprife them, after farcling, the corns are
killed by the froft ; but that it is better to cleanfe and weed them in.
due time. Neverthelefs there are many who are of opinion, that they
fhould be farcied; but that it ought not to be done at random, either
after the fame manner, or at the fame time every-where; for, inlands
that are dry, and expofed to the fun, as foon as the corns can bear far¬
cling, they ought to he covered with the earth, after it has been tho¬
roughly ftirred, that fo they may be able to fprout, and put forth their
ftem ; which very thing muft be done before winter, and then it muft
be done a fecond time after the winter is paft ; but that, in cold and
marftiy places, the corns ought to be farcied, for the mofkpart, after
the winter is over, but not covered with earth, but the earth throughly
ftirred with even, plain, fmooth farcling. Neverthelefs we find, that,,
in many countries, winter farcling is very proper, only indeed where
the drinefs of the climate, and the gentle warmth of the weather, allow
it. But neither are we of opinion, that that ought to be done every¬
where, but that we muft conform to the cuftom of the inhabitants •

(1) Sanulatio five farritio. I have feen thefe two words fometimes tranflated weeding
or raking ; but it is a very different work, and may be performed where there are no
weeds. Sarculare is to open the furface of the earth, hardened by the feverity of the win¬
ter, that fo it may admit the frefh heat of the fun. ’Pliny gives this explication of the word ;
and this hardened ftate of the furface of the ground he calls foli trijlitiatn , as if, by the
colds, the earth was made fad and depreffed, from which it is relieved and made glad, as
it were, by the admiffion of the warmth of the fun. I tranflate it moftly by a word which
is not fo common (viz. to farcle) ; but which, if commonly ufed, would better exprefs
this aftion, than to hoe, which is more than moving the furface only, if f miftake not;
for thereby the earth is gathered and heaped up about the plant, which is not the mean¬
ing of the word Jarculare ; for our author, when he orders this to be done, always adds
to ihe plain farcling agger are terram , or terra obruere,& c. which £hews,that farculare does
cot exprefs fo much.

for

Chap. XII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 85

for countries have their own peculiar gifts and advantages bellowed by
nature, as Egypt and Africa , where the Hulbandman does not touch
the corns, after he has fown them, till the harvell 5 becaufe- the conlti-
tution of the climate, and the goodnefs of the earth, are fuch, that
fcarcely any herb comes up but from feed fown, either becaufe (bowers
are rare, or becaufe the quality of the ground does thus yield itfelf to
them who cultivate it.

But, in thofe places where farcling is requilite, the corns that grow
upon the ground mull not be touched before they have intirely covered
the furrows, even tho’ the Hate of the weather allows it. It will be
right to farcle common wheat, and hulked bearded wheat, when
they have begun to have four fibres or leaves (2) ; and barley, when it
has five ; beans, and other forts of pulfe, when they appear four inches
above ground. Neverthelefs lupins are excepted, farcling being hurt¬
ful to this feed, becaufe it has but one root, which if it be either cut
with the iron tool, or wounded, the whole llalk dies r and, tho’ this
were not the cafe, yet this culture would be fuperfluous, feeing this
thing alone is fo far from being annoyed with weeds, that itfelf dellroys
weeds. But other growing corns, which may be llirred even when
they are wet, yet it is better to farcle them when they are dry j for,
when they are managed after this manner, they are not annoyed with
blaffcing and mildew. But barley, unlefs it be exceeding dry, ought
not to be touched.

Many indeed think, that beans ought not to be hoed, becaufe, being
pulled up, and gathered by hand, they may both be feparated from
fuch other things as ought to be rooted up by the weeder, and alfo the
grafs and herbs, which are grown up among them, may be referved for
hay. Cornelias Celfus alfo is of this opinion, who, among the other
advantages and good qualities of pulfe, reckons this alfo ; viz,, that,
after you have gathered the beans, you may, from the lame place, cut
a crop of hay. But it feems to me a fign of a very bad Hulbandman
to allow weeds to come up with any thing whatfoever that he has fown-;.
for, if weeding be given over and neglected, it will diminifh very much
the increafe of all forts of corn and grain whatfoever : for it is not at
all the part of a prudent Hulbandman to apply himfelf more to procure
fodder for cattle, than food for men, efpecially confidering, that that
may be obtained by the culture of meadows. And I am fo much of

(2) Poftquam creperit ejje qitatuor fibrarum. Father Hardouin > in his notes on Plinfs
tiat. hift. takes thefe words to fignify after the roots begin to have four fibres j but Palla¬
dios , who, in moft places, follows this author, underftands them of the leaves or blades
which the Idem putteth forth, triticum <& far farritur epuatuor foliorum, lib. ii. tit. 9.

the

86 L. J. M. C O L U M ELLA Book II.

the opinion, that beans are to be farcied, that, I think, they ought to
be thrice farcied ; for, when they are thus cultivated, we find, that
they not o ily multiply their fruit, but that a very fmall portion of
their fubftance runs into the hufks ; and that a modius of them, when
fhaled and cleanfed, will fill the modius almoft as full as when they
were in tire ; and that the meafure is fcarcely diminifhed by flopping
them of their pods : and, in general, as we have already faid, winter
farcling is a very great help, and a vafl advantage, when the weather is
fair and dry, after the middle of winter is pafl, in the month of Janu¬
ary, if there be no frofls. Moreover, it ought to be fo done, that the
roots of the corns may not be hurt, but rather that they be intirely co¬
vered, and the earth raifed and heaped upon them, that the flalk may
fpread itfelf farther upon the ground (3). It will be of great ufe and
advantage to have done this at the firfl farcling, but, at the fecond, it
will be hurtful ; for, when the corn has given over pullulating, if you
cover it with earth, it will rot : therefore nothing more ought to be
done in farcling it a fecond time, but to flir and move the ground
equally. And this mufl be done immediately after the vernal Equinox
is pafl, within twenty days, before the corn begins to knot ; for, when
it is farcied later, it is fpoiled by the enfuing fummer droughts and
heats.

To farcling we mufl fubjoin weeding (4) ; and we mufl take care
not to touch the corn when it is in the bloffom, but either before, or
prefently after it has call its flower : for all kinds of corn and barley,
and, in a word, whatever does not fpring of a double feed (5), fends
forth the ear from the third to the fourth knot ; and, after it has put
it all forth, in eight days it calls its bloffom, and then continues to grow
larger for forty days, in which, after the flower, it comes to maturity.
Again, fuch as fpring of a double feed, as the bean, the pea, the lentil,
bloffom forty days, and, at the fame time, continue to grow larger.

(3) Ut latius fe humi frutex difundat , that the ftalk may diffufe or fpread itfelf the
wider upon the ground. Perhaps the aurhor alfo means, that, the earth being gathered to¬
gether, and heaped upon the corns, not only its ftalk may fpread its blade, but that ics
root alfo may diffuie itfelf the wider.

(4) Runcatio, weeding, fets the roots of the corn at liberty, when it is jointed, by pluck¬
ing up the ufelefs weeds, and feparates and fevereth it from the green turf, and common
grafs, and other weeds, that choak it.

(5) Duplicis Jeminis. By double feed here Tome underftand, that, when the feed of the
bean, peafe, <&c. has been, for fome time, committed to the ground, it divides itfelf into
two diftindt lobes, between which the germ or bud, which hitherto had lurked therein,
unfolds itfelf, and comes forth; fo that, afterwards, the lobes on each fide ftick to the
plant like two leaves. It is certain, that wheat and barley, <&c. when their feeds begin to
bud in the earth, have a different appearance from beans, peafe, &c. and do not feparate
and divide themfelves after the fame manner.

CHAP.

Chap. XIII, Of HUSBANDRY.

87

CHAP. XIII.

How many Day-labourers may be ajfigned to every Sort of
Land , in Proportion to the Extent of it, and to the Man¬
ner of cultivating it.

AN D that we may now reckon up with how many days labour
the feeds we have committed to the earth may be brought to the
threfhing-floor ; four or five modii of common wheat take up four
days labour of the Ploughman, one of the Harrower, two of the Hoer
or Sarcler, for the firft time, and one when they are farcied a fecond
time, one of the Weeder,and of the Reaper one and an half; the fum
of the whole, ten days labour and one half : five modii of white winter
wheat require as many. Nine or ten modii of fefamum require the fame
number of days labour as five modii of common wheat.

Five modii of barley require three days labour of the Ploughman,
one day’s labour to harrow it, one and a half to farcle it, and one to
reap it ; in all fix days labour and one half. Four or fix modii of beans,
in old fallow-ground, take up two days labour of the Ploughman, and,
in land that has been plowed and fown the fame year, one day’s labour.
They are harrowed with one day’s labour and an half ; hoed with one
day’s labour and an half ; hoed a fecond time with one, and a third time
with one ; and they are reaped with one day’s labour. The fum of all
the days labour is feven or eight.

Six or feven modii of tares, in old fallow-ground, require two days
labour of Ploughmen, and, in that which bears a crop every year, one
day’s labour. Alfo they are harrowed with one day’s labour, and cut
down with one ; in the whole, three or four days labour. Five modii
of bitter vetches are fown with the fame number of days labour, and
harrowed with one ; alfo they are farcied, weeded, and cut down, with
one day’s labour each. They all together take up fix days labour. Six
or feven modii of fenugreek are put under-ground with the fame num¬
ber of days labour, and are reaped with one. Four modii of kidney-
beam are put under-ground with the like number of days labour, are
harrowed with one, and cut down with one. Four modii of chicklings
require three days labour of the Ploughmen ; they are harrowed with
one day’s labour, weeded with one, and pulled up with one. The whole
amounts to fix days labour. A modius and an half of lentils require the
fame number of days labour ; they are harrowed with one, farcied with

two,

I

88 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

two, weeded with one, and pulled up with one day’s labour 5 eight
days labour in the whole.

Ten modii of lupins are put under-ground with one day’s labour,
harrowed with one, and reaped with one. Four fextarii of millet ,
and as many of panic , take up four days labour of the Ploughmen ;
they are harrowed with three, and farcied with three days labour. It
is uncertain with how many days labour they are pulled. Three mo¬
dii of chich-peafe are fown with the fame number of days labour j they
are harrowed with two, farcied with one, weeded with one, and pulled
with three days labour ; in the whole, ten days labour. Eight or ten
modii of linleed are fown with four yoke of oxen ; they are harrowed
with three days labour, weeded with one, and pulled with three days
labour. The whole amounts to eleven days labour.

Si x fextarii of fefamum are cultivated with three yoke of oxen, fo
far as tilling the ground for them ; they are harrowed with four days
labour, farcied with four, and farcied a fecond time with two, and
reaped with two ; in the whole, fifteen days labour. Hemp is fown as
we have already taught ; but it is uncertain how great expence and care
it requires. But medic is put under-ground, not with the plough, but,
as I faid, with fmall wooden rakes. A jugerum of its land is harrowed
with two days labour, farcied with one, and reaped with one.

By this fum total of days labour we collect, that two hundred jngera
of land may be manured with two yoke of oxen, as many Ploughmen,
and fix common labourers, provided it be free from trees j but, if it
be planted with trees for fupporting vines, Saferna affirms, that the
fame quantity may be well enough cultivated with the addition of three
men more : which computation teaches us, that one yoke of oxen
may fuffice for one hundred and twenty-five modii of wheat, and as
many of pulfe j fo that the whole autumnal fowing may amount to
two hundred and fifty modii ; and, after this, nevertheless, there may
be feventy-five modii of trimeftrian feed fown. And this is made out
* thus: The feeds, which are fown in twenty-five jugera of land, after
four times plowing (1), require one hundred and fifteen days labour of
Ploughmen ; for this quantity of land, tho’ exceeding hard, is tilled
with fifty days labour, it is plowed a fecond time with twenty-five,
and plowed a third time, and fown, with forty days labour. The fe-
veral forts of pulfe employ and take up fixty days labour, that is, two
months. Forty-five days alfo are computed for rainy weather and

( 1) Semina qua quarto fulco feruntur. By feeds fown in the fourth furrow is meant fown
upon land plowed four times over ; fo likewife fown in one, fecond or third furrow, fig-
■nthes once, twice, or thrice plowing.

S ■ holi-

Chap. XIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 89

holidays, in which they don’t plow. Alfo, when the feed-time is over,
we reckon thirty days, in which they reft from their labour : fo they
amount in the whole to eight months and ten days. Neverthelefs, over
and above, there are three months and twenty-five days of the year
remaining, which we may fpend either in fovving trimefrian feed , or
in carrying of hay, and fodder, and all forts of dung, and other things
neceflary for our ufe.

CHAP. XIV.

What Sorts of Pulfe are hurtful to Lands, and <what are of

of Benefit to them .

BUT the fame Saferna thinks, that, by fome of the feeds which I
have mentioned, lands are dunged and helped ; and that, on the
contrary, by others they are burnt up and emaciated j and that they
are dunged with lupins, beans, tares, bitter vetches, the lentil, chichling,
and peafe. As to lupins, I am in no doubt, nor yet as to the tare, when
fown for fodder, provided that the plough follow it immediately after
it is cut down green, and that the Plough-fhare tear up, and cover with
earth, what the fickle has left, before it withers ; for this fupplies the
place of dung. But if, after the fodder is cut down, the roots of it, that
are left, fhall wither in the ground, they will take away all the juice of
it, and confume the ftrength of the earth ; and it is likely, that this is
the cafe with beans alfo, and the other forts of pulfe, wherewith the
earth feems to be fattened : fo that, unlefs it be ripped up as foon as the
crop you have of them is taken away, they will be of no benefit at all to
corns that are fown in that place afterwards. And L’remellius fays alfo,
that of all forts of pulfe that are pulled by hand, the poifon of chich-
peafe and flax does moft hurt to the ground j the one, becaufe it is of a
faline, and the other, becaufe it is of an exceeding hot nature j which
Virgil alfo intimates, by faying (i),

{ A crop of fax, and oats , and poppies foak’d
‘ In Lethe's drowfy ftream, burns up the ground.’

Nor is there any doubt, but the land is annoyed and worfted, both
by thefe feeds, as alfo by millet and panic j but there is one prefent

(1) Virg. Georg, lib. i. 77,

N

medicine

go L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

medicine and fovereign cure for all ground that is worn out by crops of
the forefaid legumes, viz. that you help and relieve it with dung, and,
by this fort of nourilhment, as it were, repair and reftore its exhaufted
ifrength ; and that not only for the advantage of feeds, which are com¬
mitted to furrows made with the plough, but alfo for the benefit of
trees and (hrubs, which thrive much better with this fort of nourilh-
ment. Wherefore, if it is, as it feems to me, exceeding profitable to
Hulbandmen, I think it proper to difcourfe of it more carefully, con-
jfidering, that tho’ this thing has not been intirely neglected by antient
authors, yet they have treated of it but very fuperficially.

CHAP. XV.

Of the fever al Kinds of Dung (i) .

THERE are three principal forts of dung ; that produced by
fowls, that by men, and that by cattle. Of fowls that is reckoned
the beft, which is brought out of pigeon-houfes. Next to it is that
which hens and other poultry breed, excepting neverthelefs fuch as live
in fens and marfhes, and fwimming fowls, as that of ducks and geefe j
for that is alfo hurtful. Neverthelefs we approve moil of pigeons dung,
becaufe we find, that it ferments the earth, when it is moderately
fcattered upon it.

The fecond is that which men make, if it be mixed with the other
filth and fweepings of the manor-houfe j for it is naturally very hot
by itfelf, and therefore burns up the ground. Neverthelefs human
urine, which you have let grow old for fix months, is fitter for (hoots

(i) Moft of the ruftic writers, both Greek and Latin , agree in their notions about
dung ; and, if they feem to differ at any time, ic is only when they fpeak of the different
application of it : fo, when they feem to differ from our author, it is becaufe they fpeak
of applying it to trees, and he to corn-lands, &c.

Varro fays, that pigeons dung is the beft of any, becaufe it is exceeding hot, and fer¬
ments the earth ; and he difapproves of that of water-fowl, as geefe, ducks, &c. as other
antient authors alfo do, becaufe of its too great humidity. Pigeons dung is not to be
fpread upon land thick like other dung, but to be fcattered very thin. Some mix it with
the feed, and fo fow it. They who lett their aviaries, ofeen referved the dung, and con-
fequently lett them much cheaper.

Varro places the dung of goats, fheep, and affes, in the third rank ; but Columella places
that of affes before that of goats and fheep, for a very good reafon, becaufe thefe animals
chew their food better. Varro feems not to approve of horfe-dung for corn-lands ; but
lays, that all dung of horfes and other cattle is beft for meadows, becaufe it breeds many
herbs.

and

Chap. XV. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 9l

and young trees. If you apply it to vines, or to apple-bearing tree?,
there is nothing that contributes more to make them bear abundance of
fruit 3 nor does this thing only produce a greater increafe, but it alfo
improves both the tade and the flavour of the wine, and of the apples.

Old lees of oil alfo, which have no fait in them, mixed with this,
may very properly be made ufe of for watering fruit-bearing trees, and
efpecially olives 3 for lees alfo applied by themfelves are of great benefit
to them ; but both the one and the other is to be ufed chiefly during
the winter, and even in the fpring, before the fummer heats, while the
roots of the vines and the trees don’t lie open and bare.

The dung of cattle obtains the third place, and in it alfo there is fome
difference 3 for that which the afs makes is reckoned the bed, becaufe
that animal eats very (lowly, and therefore digeds more eafily, and
yields a dung that is well prepared, and fit for the land immediately.
After thefe we have mentioned is fheeps dung, and next to it that of
goats, and then that of horfes, and other large cattle of all forts. Hogs
dung is reckoned the word of all. Yea, afhes alfo, and foot, have been
of great benefit to things that are either planted or fown 3 and the dalks
of lupins, cut down, drengthen as much as the bed of dung.

Nor am I ignorant, that there is a certain kind of land, and fome
places in the country, wherein neither cattle nor fowls can be kept ;
yet it is a fign of a flothful Hufbandman, even in fuch a place as that,
to be deditute of dung : for he may amafs and put together any kind
of leaves, and collections of any other things, out of thickets and high¬
ways 3 he may cut down ferns, without doing any injury to his neigh¬
bour ; yea, he may even do him fervice by it, and mix them throughly
with the dirt and l'weepings of the court-yard 3 he may fink a pit, fuch
as we directed to be made in our fird book, for laying up dung in, and
gather into it, in one heap, aflies and dirt of the kennels, finks, and
common fewers, draw, and dubble, and the other things that are
fwept out of the houfe.

But, in the middle of this fame place, it is proper to faden fome oak-
wood 3 for this will hinder milchievous hurtful ferpents to lurk in the
dung. Thefe things mud be done where the land is deditute of cattle 3
for where there are flocks and herds of four-footed beads abiding for
ordinary, there are fome things, which ought to be cleaned every day,
as the kitchen and the dairy 3 and fome things on rainy days, as the cow-
houfes, the ox-dalls, and the fheep-folds. But, if you have only corn-
land, there is no occafion to keep the feveral forts of dung feparate.
But, if the ground is laid out and prepared for plantations of young
trees, and for corns, and alfo for meadows, the dung mud be laid up

N 2 feparately,

92 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

feparately, according to its kind, as that of goats and of fowls. Then
the other forts mail: be all gathered into the hollow place before-men¬
tioned, and glutted with continual moifture, that fo the feeds of .the
herbs, that are mixed with the Jftalks, and the ftraw and ftubble, and
other things, may rot. Then, in the fummer- months, the whole
dunghil muft be throughly mixed and fhuffled with fpades, in the fame
manner as if you repaftinated it, that it may rot the more eafily, and
be fit for corn-lands. And I think, that thofe Hufbandmen are not
very diligent, with whom each of the leffer cattle, in thirty days, makes
lefs than one load of dung (2), and their greater cattle alfo lefs than ten
loads each, and each of the men as many, who may draw together and
amafs into one place, not only the filth which comes out of their own
bodies, but all the dirt that the houfe and the court-yard daily produce.

I have this further precept alfo to add, that all kind of dung laid up
in due time, which has refled one whole year, is the moft ufeful for
corn ; for it both has its flrength as yet intire, and does not breed weeds;
but fo much the older it is, the lefs good it does, becaufe it has lefs
flrength : therefore the very frefheft dung ought to be thrown upon
meadows, becaufe it produces more herbs. And it is expedient, that
this be done in the month of February , during the increafe of the
moon ; for even this alfo contributes fomewhat to a good crop of hay.
What further ufe is to be made of dung, and after what manner it ought
to be ufed with refpedt to every thing, we fhall explain, when we
come to treat of every particular thing by itfelk

CHAP. XVI.

At what 'Times Lands muft be dunged \

IN the mean time, whoever has a mind to prepare lands for corns, if
he is refolved to fow his feed in autumn, let him lay fmall heaps of
dung in due order upon it, in the month of September ; but, if he de-
figns to fow in the fpring, let him lay his dung at any time in winter,
while the moon is decreafing, fo that a jugerum of plain level land
may hold twelve loads of dung, and a jugerum of that which is hilly
and fhelving twenty-four loads ; and, as I faid a little before, let him
not fpread the heaps till he is going to fow. Neverthelefs, if any thing.

(2) Vebes Jlercoris. Their load of dung contained 80 modii, lib. xi. a. which amounts
So about 20 bufhels and almoft 2 pecks.

has

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY. 93

has hindered him from laying the dung upon the land in due time, the
next method to be taken is, to fcatter all over the corns before you
farcle them, as if you were fowing feed, the duft of the dung of the
poultry-coops and aviaries ; but, if you have not this, you muft throw
goats dung with your hand, and then, with hoes, mix it throughly
with the earth. This makes corns- thrive exceedingly.

Nor muft the Hufbandman be ignorant, that as land, which is not
dunged, grows cold, fo that, which is too much dunged, is burnt up;
and that it is more for the advantage of the Hufbandman to do this
rather frequently than immoderately. Nor is it to be doubted, but
watery land requires a greater plenty, and that which is dry a lefTer
quantity of it 5 the one, becaufe, being chilled with continual moifture,
it is thawed by applying this to it ; the other, becaufe, being warm of
itfelf, and, by reafon of the droughts, when it has affumed a larger
quantity of it, is intirely parched : for which reafon fuch kind of fluff
muft neither be given it too fparingly, nor yet in too great plenty. If
neverthelefs you are provided with no kind of dung, it will be of great
advantage to it to do, what I remember Marcus Columella my uncle, a
moft learned and diligent Hufbandman, was frequently wont to do ;
viz. to throw chalk or marie upon fuch places as abound in gravel ;
and to lay gravel, upon fuch as are chalky, and too denle and ftiff : and
thus he not only raifed great plenty of excellent corn, but alfo made
moft beautiful vineyards ; for this fame moft fkilfulHufbandman denied,
that dung ought to be applied to vines, becaufe it would fpoil the tafte
of the wine; and thought, that fluff gathered together out of thickets,
and from among briars and thorns, or, in a word, any other fort of
earth fetched from any other place, and carried to them, was much
better for making a plentiful vintage.

But now indeed I am of opinion, that fuppofing the Hufbandman -
were deftitute of all thefe things, yet certainly the moft expeditious and
ready affiftance of lupins can never be wanting to him, which, when
he fcatters them upon poor land about the thirteenth of September , and
plows them in, and then, in due time, cuts them down, either with
the plough-fhare, or the fpade, will have as good effeft as the beft and
ftrongeft dunging whatfoever. But, in gravelly lands, lupins muft be
cut down after they have put forth their fecond flower ; and, in lands
which are full of red earth, after the third flower. There they are
turned up while they are young and tender, that they may quickly rot ;
and here when they are grown ftronger, that they may bear up and
keep the more folid and ftiff clods of earth the longer fulpended, that

thefe.

94 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

thefe, being heated and dried up with the fummer funs, may be opened,
and refolved into duft.

CHAP. XVII.

After what manner arable La?tds may be reduced into

Meadows .

AND thefe things the plower maybe able to effectuate, if he not
only makes provifion of the feveral forts of fodder I have men¬
tioned, but alfo of a great plenty of hay, that he may better fupport
and maintain his oxen, without which it is difficult to labour the ground
conveniently and to advantage : and therefore the culture of the mea¬
dow, to which the antient Romans gave the precedence in agriculture,
is alfo neceffary for him. Alfo they gave it its nam epratum (i), from
its being prefently ready., and becaufe it did not require much labour.
Marcus Porcius (2) did alfo make mention of thofe farther advantages }
viz. that it would not be afflicted with ftormy tempeftuous weather as
other parts of the farm; and, Handing in need of very little expence,
would yield a very good income every year, and that not of one parti¬
cular fort only, becaufe it would yield no lefs in pafturage, than in hay:
therefore we take two kinds of it into confideration, of which the firft:
is naturally dry, and the other well watered.

In a rich and fat champain land, a conflantly running rivulet is not
wanted ; and the hay, which grows naturally in a juicy foil, is reckoned
better than that which is forced by conftant watering, which neverthe-
lefs is very neceftarv, if the leannefs of the ground requires it ; for a
meadow may be made both in ftiff and denfe land, and alfo in that
which is loofe and open, tho’ it be poor, if we have the convenience* of
watering it. And it neither ought to be a plain of a hollow fituation.

(1) Yratum , quafi paratum , always ready at hand, or becaufe it was, as it were, a cer¬
tain yearly income, that could be moft depended on.

(2) Marcus Porcius Cato, in his firft book, places the meadow in the fifth place only ;
fo that, by his fetting fuch a value upon meadow and pafturage, and yet not placing them
in the firft place, we may obferve, that, when he enumerates the things, which one who
purchafes a manor ought principally to have in his eye, he does not rank them according
to the value he fet upon the things themfelves ; otherwife he would not have placed his
willow-groves before the olive-yard or the corn-field. Tully, in his iid book de officiis, and
Columella, in his preface to hisvich book, feem to fay, that he gave the preference to pa-
fturirg of cattle ; and yet, as is faid, in his own book, he places it in the fifth place j fo
that, it feems, he had no regard to the value of things in ranking them.

nor

Chap. XVIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 95

nor upon a very fteep hill ; not the former, left it contain too long the
water that gathers in it 5 nor the latter, left it pour it off headlong in
an inftant. Neverthelefs land that fhelves gently, if it is either fat, or
well watered, may be reduced into meadow ; but fuch a level ground
is moft approved, which, having a very fmall gentle defcent, does not
fuffer the ihowers, nor the rivulets that flow into it, to abide long in
it ; or, if any water comes upon it, it creeps off flowly : therefore, if
in any part it be low and marfhy, and the water ftagnates upon it,
it mult be carried off by furrows; for either great abundance, or fear-
city of water, is equally pernicious to grafs of all forts.

CHAP. XVIII.

After what manner Meadows , when they are made , mufi he.

cultivated.

BUT the culture of meadows is more a bufinefs of care, than of
labour. The firft and principal thing is, that we don’t fuffer
plants with ftrong roots, or thorns, and herbs that grow up to a greater
iize, to remain in them ; and that v/e extirpate fome of them during
the autumn, and before winter,, fuch as br amble -bujhes, Jhr ubs, ruJ]jes-y
and pluck up others of them in the fpring, as endive. and thorns ,
that grow up about the time of the folftice ; and that we neither allow
a hog to feed therein, becaufe, with its fnout, it digs up and raifes the
turf, nor larger cattle, unlefs when the ground is exceeding dry, be¬
caufe they fink their hoofs into it, and bruife and cut the roots of the
herbs. Moreover, in the next place, the leaner and pendent places muft
be afiifted and refrefhed with dung in the month of February , during
the increafe of the moon. All the ftones, and if there be any other
things, that lie in the way of the fithe, ought to be gathered together,
and carried to a great diftance out of the ground, and the meadows fhut
up, and left to grow, either fooner or later, according to the nature of
the places.

There are alfo fome meadows all covered over with naftinefs, for
want of draining, and other neceffary culture, and with old or coarfe
thick mofs, which Hulbandmen ufe to cure, by throwing feeds from
the hay-loft, or laying dung upon them, neither of which will be of fa
much benefit to it as laying allies very often upon it. This thing kills
the mofs. Neverthelefs thefe remedies are fomewhat too flow ; whereas
1 the

go L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II.

the moft efficacious is, to plow up the place afreffi ; but this we ought
to do, in cafe we have entered into the poffeffion of meadows already
made to our hand ; but, if we muft either make new ones, or reftore
thofe that are old, (for there are many of them, as I faid, which, thro’
negligence, fail and decay, and become barren) it is expedient fome-
times to plow them up, even to fow corn upon them, becaufe fuch
land, after lying long idle, brings a plentiful crop of corn.

Therefore, having plowed up in fummer the place we have deftin-
.ated for^a meadow, and manured it over and over again, during the
autumn we will- fow it with turaeps, or navews, or. even with beans;
then the following year with corn. The third year we will plow it
carefully, and intireiy root out all the flronger herbs, bramble-bufhes,
and trees, that hand here-and-there in our way, unlefs that the advan¬
tage we reap by the trees, that are planted there, hinders us to do this.
Then we will fow tares upon it, mixt with feeds of hay; then, with
hoes and rakes, we will open and break all the clods ; and level it, by
drawing a hurdle or harrow over it; and diffipate all the hillocks, which,
for the moft part, the harrows make at the turnings j fo that the mow¬
er’s lithe may no- where ftrike again ft any thing.

But it is not proper to cut down thefe tares before they be fully ripe,
and have dropped l'ome of their feeds upon the ground that lies under
them. Then we mull bring in the mower and the hay-maker, and,
after the grafs is cut. down, bind it up in bundles, and carry it out of
the ground. Then we mull water the place, if we have the conveni-
ency of water, provided the earth be denfe, and clofer than ordinary :
for, where .the ground is open and loole, it is not expedient to convey
a great quantity of water into it, before the mould is condenfed, and
bound together with the herbs ; becaufe the force of the waters waffies
away the earth, and, by uncovering the roots of the grafs, does not
fuffer it to grow up : for this reafon indeed we ought not to put cattle
into meadows that are yet young and tender, and fubfiding, but, with
the lithe, cut down the grafs when it fprings up; for, as I have already
laid, the cattle fallen their hoofs into the foft ground, and, bruifing
a,nd breaking the roots of the herbs in two, hinder them to fpread gra¬
dually, and condenfate it. Neverthelefs, the fecond year we will allow
fmaller cattle to be admitted, after the hay harvelt is over, provided the
drynefs and condition of the place will fuffer it. Then the third year,
when the meadow is become more hard and folid, it may receive greater
cattle alfo.

But, upon the whole, care muft be taken, that, at the time when
the weltern winds begin to blow, about the thirteenth of the month of

February i

Chap. XIX. Of HUSBANDRY. ^

February , the grounds that are leaner, and lie higher, be dunged, and
that there be hay-feeds mixed with the dung ; for a higher rifing ground
yields nourishment alfo to thofe grounds which lie below it, when a
fhower coming fuddenly upon it, or a rivulet carried through it, or
water conveyed into it by hand, draws the juice of the dung along with
itfelf into the lower part ; and therefore prudent HuSbandmen, even in
plowed lands, commonly lay more dung upon a hill than a valley, be-
caufe, as I faid, the rains always carry the fatter matter down to the
lower grounds.

CHAP. XIX.

After what manner Hay ought to he ma?iaged , when it is cut
down \ and how it ought to be laid up .

BU T it is beft to cut down hay before it begins to wither ; for you
gather a larger quantity of it, and it affords a more agreeable food
to cattle. But there is a meafure to be obferved in drying it, that it be
put together neither over-dry, nor yet too green ; for, in the firSt cafe,
it is not a whit better than Straw, if it has loft its juice ; and, in the
other, it rots in the loft, if it retains too much of it : and often, after
it is grown hot, it breeds fire, and fets all in a flame. Sometimes alfo,
when we have cut down our hay, a fhower furprifes us. But, if it be
throughly wet, it is to no purpofe to move it while it is wet; and it
will be better, if we fuffer the uppermost part of it to dry with the fun.
Then we will afterwards turn it, and, when it is dried on both fides,
we will bring it clofe together into cocks, and fo bind it up in bundles :
nor will we, upon any account, delay to bring it under a roof ; or, if
we cannot conveniently either carry the hay into the manor-houfe, or
bind it up in bundles or truffles, it will certainly be proper to build it up
in ricks, whatever part of it Shall be dried in the manner it ought to be,
and to form them into very narrow Sharp points; for thus the hay is
commodioufly preferved from rains ; and, tho’ there Should be none,
yet it is not amifs to make the forefaid ricks, that fo, if there be any
moiflure in the herbs, it may fweat out, and be dried up in the Stacks;
for which reafon prudent Hufbandmen, tho’ they have already brought
it under a roof, don’t prefently Stow it, and put it up in mows, before
that they fuffer it to heat, and concodt itfelf, and then grow cool, after

O having

98 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

having thrown it loofely together for a few days. But now, after the
hay-making, follows the care of the harveft.

CHAP. XX.

Of mailing and put ling a 'Threfhing-floor into duo Order.

LE T the threfhing-floor alfo, if it be of earth, and not paved, that
it may be fit for threfhing upon, be firfl pared, then delved, and
fmeared over with lees of oil, which have never been falted, and chaff,
throughly mixed together ; for this prelerves the corns from being plun¬
dered by mice and ants. Then let it be levelled, and beaten clofe with
rammers, or with a mill-ftone; and let chaff be again thrown upon it,
and trodden into it ; and fo let it be left to be dried by the fun.

Neverthelefs there are fome, who rather order a certain quantity of
the beans, that grow at a fmall diflance, to be threfhed j and, after
they have cut down and gathered the beans, they fmooth and prepare
the place for a threfhing-floor : for, while the cattle tread out the pulfe,
they alfo bruife the herbs and weeds with their hoofs ; and fo the place
grows bare and fmooth, and becomes a threfhing-floor fit for threfhing
any thing whatloever upon.

CHAP. XXI.

Of reaping Corns , and of threfhing them .

BU T, as foon as the corn is ripe, let it be cut down, before it be
parched with the heats of the fummer-fun, which are exceeding
great about the time that the Dog-flar rifes j for delaying is prejudicial
to them, and occafions great damage : firft, becaufe it gives the corn
as a prey to fowls, and other animals; next, becaufe the grain, and
even the ears themfelves, quickly fall down from the withered ftalks
and beards. But, if florms of winds, or whirlwinds, fhould furprife
us, the greater part of it falls to the ground : for which reafons, no
further delays ought to be made, but, when the corns are all over
equally yellow, before the grains be intirely hardened, when they have
contracted a reddifh colour, you muft begin to reap, that fo the corns
may rather grow big in the threfhing-floor, and in the flacks, than upon

Chap, XXI. 0/ HUSBANDRY, 99

the corn-fields ; for ’tis certain, if they be cut down in due time, they
afterwards grow fomewhat bigger. And there are feveral ways of reap¬
ing corn : many cut the ftraw by the middle with fmall cradle- tithes ( i ),
or with fickles ; and thefe are either made with a beak, or dented.
Many gather the ears themfelves with forked irons (2), others with
ripples or combs (3); and this is very eafy where the corn is thin, but
moft difficult where it is thick. But if the corn, with a part of the
ftraw, is cut down with fickles, it is prefently put together in a heap,
or carried under a fhed and, being fcorched from time to time with
the fun, as opportunity offers, it is threfhed. But, if only the ears of
the corn are cut off, they may be carried into the barn, and then, in
winter, beaten out either with ftaffs or flails, or bruifed out with cattle.

But, if you have the conveniency of threffiing the corn in a threlh-
ing-floor, there is no manner of doubt, but that bufinefs may be better

(1) Our author mentions four different forts of reaping inftruments, of which he gives
no fuch particular defcription, as to make us exadtly underftand their figure. The falces
were of different fiz.es, according to the ufes to which they were applied ; and falx feems
to fignify both a ftbe and a fickle. It is probable they bore a great refemblance to thofe
ftill in ufe, tho’ the fickles feem not to have been fhaped fo much like a crefcent as moft
of the modern ones are. It is not eafy to tell what our author means by falces verriculatte,
or what analogy there can be between falx and verriculum , which properly fignifies a drag
or fweep net j and therefore it is very probable, that the true reading is vericulatce , which
is as naturally formed from vericulum, the diminutive of veru , as geniculatus from genicu-
lum , the diminutive of genu , and fome other words of the like formation. If fo, then
thefe falces vericulatae did certainly refemble what they call cradle- fithes, which are much
in ufe in Kent, and other places ; and as thefe are framed of one or moie long fmall pieces
of wood, fhaped and pointed at one end like a fmall fpit ( vericulum ), which being fo fixed
in a fmall frame of wood, which rifes out of the lower end of the handle, near where it
is joined to the fithe, as to run parallel to the fithe, and placed at a fmall diftance the one
little fpit above the other, they ferve to fupport the ftalks of corn when cut with the fithe,
and keep them from falling backward towards the ftanding corn, till, by the fwing of
the fithe, they are thrown off towards the left-hand, where they lie in due order out of
the way of the mower. It is not at all improbable, but this inftrument, as moft other
things relating to Husbandry, might originally come from the Romans ; and that thofe
falces vericulata , mentioned by our author, might have been framed very near after the
fame manner, but of a much fmaller fize, if they were ufed in Italy , where Pliny fays,
fenifex dextra una mam fecat but here he infinuates, that they managed the fithe with
both hands in other countries. The fickles he diftinguifhes into two forts, fome with
teeth, others beaked ; both which forts are ftill in ufe.

(2) The third inftrument for reaping was the merga , by Pliny called merges , which no
doubt took its name, as Fefius fays, from fowls, which dive into the water, and rife up
again in a different place ; for, as thefe dive in purfuit of the fifii, fo the reapers plunge
this fmall forked inftrument into the corn, that they may lift up handfuls of it.

(3) The fourth reaping tool was the petten, a comb or heckle. Pliny fays, that the
ears of corn were cut away with this hand-heckle or comb put under them, juft as they
do with mens hairs when they poll them ; and he feems to inlinuate, that, when the ftraw
was cut in the middle, the ears were ftripped off inter duas mergites , between two forked
inftruments. They made ufe of thefe forked inftruments both to gather the ears, and to
throw the corn into heaps.

O 2

done

ioo L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book II.

done with horfes, than with oxen j and, if you have but few pairs or
yokes of them, you may make ufe of the cart or dray made of rough
boards, or of a flead (4) ; both which very eafily bruife the ftraw :
but it is better to beat out the ears themfelves with cudgels or flails, and
to cleanfe them with fans ; but, when the corns are mixed with chaff,
let them be feparated with the wind. The weft wind, which blows
gently and equally in the fummer months, is reckoned excellent for this
purpofe : neverthelefs to wait for it is a ftgn of a flow dilatory Hufband-
man ; for, while we are waiting for it, a hard winter overtakes us :
therefore, after the corns are threfhed, they muft be laid in heaps upon
the threfhing-floor in fuch a manner, as they may be winnowed with
any breeze. But if, for many days, the wind is filent on every fide,
let them be cleanfed with fans, left, after the winds have been excef-
fively dull, a vaft ftorm deftroy, and render ufelefs, the labour of the
whole year. Then the pure corns, if they are laid up for years, ought
to be winnowed a fecond time ; for, the cleaner they are, the lefs will
they be eaten up, and deftroyed by wevils. But, if they be defigned
for ufe immediately, it is to no purpofe to cleanfe them a fecond time ;
it is fuflicient to cool them in the fhade, and fo bring them into the
garner. Alfo no other care is to be taken of legumes, than of other
forts of corn ; for thofe like wife are either for prefen t confumption, or
are laid up in ftore. And this reaping and gathering in of the harveft
is the fupreme and ultimate advantage and gain, which the plower pro-
pofed to himfelf, when he committed the feeds to the earth.

(4) Traha was a kind of dray made of boards full of teeth, with fmall wheels, which
Was drawn over the threfhing-floor, in order to beat the corn out of the ears.

Tribulum , or tribula , was a plank ftuck full of fmall flint-ftones or iron, upon which
they placed a great weight, and drew it with horfes over the corn, which they had placed
regularly upon the threfhing-floor. Sometimes the driver fat upon it, and drove the oxen
or horfes backward and forward, and, partly by the feet of the oxen and horfes, partly
by the weight and friftion of the machine, the grains were foon feparated from the ears ;
and the draw was drawn by the teeth ftuck in the planks, and by the fmall wheels, to
the ends of the threfhing-floor. This was the way of threfhing in the eaftern countries,
as alfo among the Romans^ Farro, lib. i. cap. 52. See alfo the prophet Ifaiab, chap, xxviii.
ver. 26. wherein there is mention made of the different ways of threfhing. It was the
cuftom in thofe days to threfh their corns in the fields, as they do at prefent in many hoc
dry countries, as foon as they are cut down.

CHAP.

Chap. XXII. Of HUSBANDRY.

ioi

CHAP. XXII.

What Things a Hufbandman may lawfully do upon Holidays ,

and what not .

BU T forafmuch as our anceftors thought it highly reafonable to
give as ftricft an account of their idle and fpare time, as of their
time for buflnefs; we alfo think it proper to admonifh Hulbandmen
what things they ought, or ought not to do, upon holidays ; for there
are certain things, which, as the poet fays (i),

‘ Both civil and religious laws allow
* On feftivals. No facred laws forbid
* To drain our lands, or waters to difpenfe,

‘ Or with a hedge our corn-fields to furround j
* For birds hid fnares to lay ; to burn up briars ;

‘ And bleating flocks in healthful ftreams to plunge.’

Tho’ the Pontiffs (2) deny, that we ought to make hedges round out
corn-fields on holidays, they alfo forbid us to wafh our fheep upon the
account of the wool, but only by way of phyfic. Virgil has inftru&ed
us upon what confiderations it may be lawful to wadi a flock in a river
upon holidays; and therefore added, in healthful fir earns to plunge ; for
there are difeafes, upon the account of which, it may be of great advan¬
tage to bathe the cattle.

But the cuftoms and rites of our anceflors allow alfo thofe things to be
done on holidays ; viz. to bray husked and bearded wheat in a mortar ;

( i) Virgil. Georg, lib. i. 268.

(2) Fo?ttifices. The Pontiffs were a college of priefts firft inftituted by who chofe

them out of the fenators. They were, at firft, only four in number, but afterwards increafed
to eight, and then by Sylla to fifteen. Their office was to give judgment in all religious
caufes, and to infpeo: the manners of the inferior priefts, and puniffi them when they law
occafion ; to prefcribe rules for public worfhip ; to regulate the feftivals, lacrifices, and all
other things relating to religion. The mafterfhip or headfiiip of this college was one of the
mod honourable offices in the commonwealth; and Numa inverted himfelf therewith.
Julius Casfar, Augujrus , and moft of the fucceeding Emperors, exercifed this office; and
no wonder, confidering the great dignity and power annexed to it, he being looked upon
as the fovereign judge and arbitrator in all things both divine and human. The college had
power to infticute new religious rites and ceremonies, and were confulted by the people
upon all religious occafions. See Dionyfvs Halicarnaffeus , and Cicero , in his oration for his
own houfe. The head of the college was called pontifex tnaxisnuS) not from his age or pre¬
cedency, but from his power and authority.

102 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book II,

to cut torches ; to make tallow-candles j cultivate a hired vineyard , or
which we have undertaken to drefs at a certain price ; to purge atid
cleanje Jijh-ponds , ponds , old ditches^ to mow meadows a J'econd time ;

/o fpread dung ; to lay up and Jlow hay in the hay-lofts ; to gather the
fruits of an olive-yard, which we have hired, or undertaken to manage
at a certain price ; Jpread apples, pears, and figs ; to make cheeje ;
Z’/v'y/g- /rm, either upon our Jhoulders, or upon a pack-mule , in order
to plant them: but we are not allowed to carry them with one that is
yoked in a cart or a waggon, nor to fow or plant any thing, that we
have brought home, nor to open the ground, nor to prune or lop trees;
but you muft not fo much as do any thing relating to fowing, unlefs
you have firft facrificed a puppy ; nor cut hay, nor make it up in trufies,
nor carry it home : nor is it lawful, according to the religious fyftems
of the Pontiffs, to gather the vintage upon holidays, nor fhear your
iheep, till you have fir ft offered a puppy in facrifice.

It is lawful alfo to make rob of grapes, or fodden wine, by boiling
the muft in to one third of the firft quantity, and to mix it with the
wine (3). It is alfo lawful to gather grapes and olives for preferving.
But it is not lawful to cloathe the fheep with fkins. Whatever you do in
your garden, relating to pot-herbs, is allowed ; and, upon public holi¬
days, it is not lawful to bury a dead man. Marcus Porcius Cato (4) faid,
that there were no days of vacation for mules, horfes, and affes. The
fame author allows us to yoke oxen, in order to bring home wood and
corn. We read in the books of the Pontiffs, that, only upon fuch holi¬
days as were obferved in private families on the tenth day after the death
of any perfon (5), it is not lawful to yoke mules; but, on other holidays,
it is allowed.

I am perfuaded, that, in this place, fome perfons, after I have reckon¬
ed up the folemn feafts, will defire to know the cuftom obferved by the
undents in their luftrations which they made, and facridces which they

(3) Defrutum. I believe this word mighc properly enough be rendered rob of grapes,
if any fore of rob be made without fugar. However, the thing is th»s: The ancient Romans
ufed to take a certain quantity of their beft and Tweeted muft, and boil ic in to a certain
•quanrity. What they boiled in to one half of the firft quantity, they called Japa ; and that
which they boiled in to one third, they called defrutum. With it they mixed and boiled
feveral ingredients. This defrutum or (apa they applied to feveral ufes, but chiefly they ufed
it tor preferving their wines, fruits, drc. They thought, that a certain quantity contributed
much to preferve their wines from fpoiling. They alfo made ufe of them for curing ail¬
ments both of men and cattle, as we (hall fee in the fequel of this work.

(4) Cats, cap. 138.

(5) Feri* denicales. Thefe were holidays kept by private perfons upon the tenth day after
the death of any perfon in the family. They fanfied, that the houfe was polluted by the
dead body, and they were wont to make ufe of certain religious rites and ceremonies to
purge the fame.

offered

Chap. XXII. Of HUSBANDRY. 103

offered for the fruits of the earth (6) ; nor do I refufe to be at the trou¬
ble of inftru&ing them in thefe things : but I put it off to the book I
defign to compofe, after I have done writing upon the whole art of
Husbandry. In the mean time I fhall put an end to the prefent argu¬
ment, and, in the next book, (hall give an account of what antient au¬
thors have written concerning vineyards, and plantations of trees for
fupporting vines, and what I myfelf have fince found out by my own
experience.

(6) It was the cuftom of the 'Roman! , at certain times of the year, to lead facrifices
round their fields with great ceremony and attendance, and afterwards to offer them up
to Ceres , or fome other of their gods, with prayers, that they would preferve the fruits of
the ground from thunder, lightning, ftorms, mildew, and all other plagues and misfortunes
whatfoever. Private perfons ufed always to luftrate their lands i and a part of their prayer
to their gods was, that they would avert all peftilence, barrennefs, &c. and profper the
culture of their lands, &c. Our author defigned to write upon this fubjedt ; whether he
did fo, or not, I know not. If he did, I fuppofe nothing of it is come to our times.

L. JUNIUS

o

[ I0+ ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK THIRD.

CHAP. I.

What Kind of Vine may he proper for every Soil and fuit~
able to the State of the Climate .

THUS far of tillage , as faith that moft excellent poet (i) ; for
nothing hinders us, Publius Silvinus, who are going to fpeak
of the fame things, aufpicioufly to begin with the firft words
of that moft renowned poem. The care of trees follows,
which is even the greateft part of Hufbandry. There are divers fpecies
of them, and of very different appearances j for there are feveral forts
of them, which (as the fame author (2) tells us) come of their own ac¬
cord, no man compels. Many of them alfo, after being planted with our
own hand, grow up. But fuch of them, as are not produced by human
affiftance, are wild and favage, and bear apples or feeds agreeable to their
feveral natures. But fuch of them, as have labour beftowed upon them,
are fitteft for producing fruit proper for food.

We muft therefore fpeak firft of that kind, which affords us nourifh-
ment j and it is divided into three different forts : for, from a fprig, or
fhoot, or cutting, there proceeds either a tree, as the olive ; or a fhrub,
as the champai npalm (3) j or a certain third thing, which I cannot pro-

(1) Virg. Georg, lib. i. i.

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. ii. io.

(3) Vahna. camp’Jlris , a champain palm. Pliny , in his nat. hift. lib. xiii. c. 4. mentions a
fort of a palm-tree, that does not exceed a lhrub.

r o Per,y

Chap. I. J. M. COLUMELLA, &c. 105

perly call either a tree or a flirub, as is the vine (4). This, with very
good reafon, we prefer to all other Items whatfoever, not only for the

fweetnefs

(4) All the antient ruftic authors agree, that there is fo great a variety in vines, that
it would be both vain and unprofitable to attempt to enumerate or deferibe the different
forts of this ufeful and delightful little tree; fo that they have only taken notice of fome
of the mod commendable, which they have ranked into a few claiTes, according to
their fcveral characters. Pli?iy has indeed mentioned a great many in his natural hifiory ;
but Virgil thought it enough to give a place in his admirable poem only to fifteen of
them. Our author has ranked them in three clafles, and has mentioned about fifteen of
the firft note, about twelve of the fecond, and ieven or eight of the third note ; but, of
fome of the fame clafs and name, he makes different forts, which have fume peculiarity
or other to diftinguifh them from each other, though they may leem to be the fame to
a fuperficial obferver. He alfo mentions a few, to which he has affigned no clafs. Of all
the different forts, there are not many, which thefe authors have fo particularly deferibed,
as to enable even a curious obferver to diffinguifh and know them at prefent ; for many
of them they juft name, with the character of being fruitful, early or late ripe, thriving
in fuch and fuch a foil and weather, &c. without giving any particular defeription of their
wood, leaves, flower, fruit, &c. as are neceflary to make them eafy to be known to after-
ages. Some of their names indeed denote fome effential character, which diftinguifh them
from all others; but thefe are but few. Many of them bear the names of the places
where they were firft known to grow, or did molt abound, or of the perfons who firft
brought them into Italy, and cultivated them ; but, as they have now loft their names,
there is but little knowledge can be gathered from molt of them. And it is remarkable,
that, even in Italy itfelf, where all thefe vines were cultivated in great abundance in our
author’s days, and where, no doubt, many of them ftill fubfift, yet very few, if any, re¬
tain their antient names ; fo that the language of the Romans has not fuffered a greater
change in any part of it, than in the names of vines; fo that it is not now eafy to deter¬
mine to which of the vines now growing the antient names belong. A few of them in¬
deed are fo exaClly deferibed by Pliny and this author, that one cannot miftake, though
they are now called by different names.

It is probable, that thofe vines, which are not particularly deferibed, were fo well known,
that it was fufficient only to name them, and nothing more was needful but to relate fome of
their particular qualities: and the chief defign of Columella feems to have been to point ouc
to the Husbandman, which of them were fitteft for his purpofe, and which not, and the
manner of their cultivation ; and fuch of them, as he has more accurately deferibed, feem
not to have been fo generally well known, and were cultivated only in few places, where
the foil was moft agreeable to their nature.

From the elegant defeription he has given us of many, if not of all, the moft commend¬
able forts, we have an opportunity to obferve and admire the beautiful and furprifing variety,
that there is in this one fmall tree or ftirub, Whatever we pleafe to call it ; which is to
great, that I know not if there be the like in any other tree or ftirub whatfoever: for tho’
all the various forts agree in many effential things, which diftinguifh them from all other
trees or fhrubs whatfoever, and from which they all have the general appellation or name
of vines , yet each of them has fome remarkable cha rafter, which confines them to a cer¬
tain fort, and diftinguifhes them from all others. Thus we fee, that our author tdls us,
that fome are exceeding fruitful; others produce tolerably well; others little or nothing;
fome are afraid of fogs, frofts, hoar-frofts, others not; fome are early ripe, others ripen
late; fome lofe all their fruit in the bloffom, others caft their bloffoms exceeding well;
fome are brittle, and eafily broken by the winds ; others of them are fo ftrong and tough,
that they fuffer nothing from them ; fome of them dread rains, others are afraid of dry
weather ; fome of them have frequent joints and knots, others but few, and diftant from
each other ; fome have long and thick branches and ftioots, others have them fmall, and
few of them; fome of them have a large pith, others have it very fmall; fome of them

P hays

io6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

fweetnefs of its fruit, but alfo for that facility, wherewith it anfwers
the pains that mortals beftow upon it, almoft in every country, and in
every latitude of the world, except in the frozen or the torrid zones ;
and it grows as happily in plains as upon hills, and thrives as well in
denfe thick ground, as in that which is loofe and open; and often alfo
in land that is poor, as in that which is fat; and in a dry foil, as well as
in that which is naturally moift ; and it alone does bed; endure both the
one and the other in temperature of weather, either under a cold, or un¬
der a fcorching hot or ftormy climate.

Neverthelefs it is of great importance what kind, or what quality
and habit the vine is of, which you refolve to cultivate, according to the
ftate and condition of the country ; for neither is the culture the fame
in every climate and foil, nor is this Hem of one and the fame kind ;
and which of them all is the chief, it is not eafy to tell, fince expe¬
rience teaches, that every country has its own, which is more or lefs
proper for it. Neverthelefs a prudent Hufbandman will eafily find
out, that that kind of vine is proper for a plain, which endures fogs and
hoar-frofts, without receiving any hurt; and for a hill, that which can
bear drought and winds. To a fat and fertile land, he will give a fmali
fender vine, and which is not naturally too fruitful ; to lean ground,
he will give a vine that bears great plenty of fruit ; to denfe and thick
land, one that fhoots out vehemently, and puts forth abundance of
hard wood and leaves ; to a loofe, open, and rich foil, one that is thin
of fprays and twigs. He will know, that a vine of a tender fruit, and
of a grape of a larger fize, is not rightly committed to a moift place,
but one of a callous, narrow, (lender fruit, and full of grape-ftones ; and
that, to a dry place alfo, plants of a different nature are rightly appro¬
priated.

But, befides thefe things, the proprietor of the place will not be igno¬
rant, that the quality of the climate, hot or cold, dry or dewy, fubjedil
to hail and wind, or calm, ferene, or foggy, is of much greater influ¬
ence than any other thing : and to a climate of a cold or foggy confti-
tution he will adapt two forts of vines, either fuch a3 are early ripe,

have their leaves cut very deep, others but very little cut, and in a different manner, and
others of them are not cut at all, but intirely round ; fome bear white, Tome red, others .
black grapes, and the bunches and grains of different fiz.es and fhapes; fome have berries'
very callous, fome foft, fome hard ; fome of them have them very beautiful and bright,
and others dark ; fome fweer, others acid ; fome produce durable wines, others that which
foon corrupts: with many other varieties too tedious to relate.

Pliny ■, in his natural hiftory , fays, that the antients reckoned vines amongft trees ; and
that there was a ftatue of Jupiter in a town of Tufcany made of a vine. He mentions alfo
a temple of Juno , fupported by pillars made of vines; but he fuppofes they were wild
vines ; and that no wood is fo durable.

whofe

Chap. I. Of H U S B A N D R Y. ro7

whofe fruit comes to maturity before winter, or thofe of a firm and
bard grape, whofe clufters calf their bloffoms in the midft of the fogs,
and afterwards ripen and grow mellow with the hoar-frofts and frofts,
as other grapes do with the heats. Alfo in a climate of a windy and tu¬
multuous conftitution, he will, with confidence, commit to the ground
fuch as take firm hold of it, and bear hard grapes. Again, to a warm
climate he will entruft fuch as are more tender, and abound in fruit. To
a dry he will deftinate fuch as rot with rains and continual dews j to a
dewy, fuch as fuffer by droughts ; to a climate fubjeft to hail, fuch as
grow with hard and broad leaves, that they may protect the fruit the
better ; for there is no fort of vine that a calm and ferene climate does
not admit, but moil; commodioufly that, whofe bunches, or fingle grains,
quickly fall off.

But if a place for vineyards, and the ftate of the climate, were to be
chofen according to your wilh, as Celfus judges very truly, that ground
or foil is the beft, which is neither too denfe, nor too loofe and open,
neverthelefs approaches more to that which is loofe j neither poor nor
exceeding rich, but which is next to that which is very fruitful * neither
champain nor deep, neverthelefs like to a riling high ground j neither
dry nor naturally wet, neverthelefs moderately moiftened with dew ;
which does not flow with fprings, either upon the furface, or deep below
ground, but that it convey to, and fupply the roots of the vines with
the neighbouring moifture ; and that that be neither bitter nor faltilh,
left it corrupt the tafte of the wine, and check the growth of every
green thing with a certain rough fcabby ruft, as it were, if fo be we be¬
lieve Virgil , who fays (f),

( A fait and bitter land in all its fruits

‘ Unhappy proves j nor can the lab’ring plough

* Its rugged nature tame, and make it mild.

‘ There Bacchus' favourite plant, the fruitful vine,

* Does lofe its kind, and apple-trees their names.’

Moreover, as I faid before, a vineyard neither requires a cold icy cli¬
mate, nor; on the other hand, one that is fcorching hot ; neverthelefs
it rejoices and thrives better in a warm than in a cold climate, and is
offended and fuffers more hurt by rains, than by fair weather, and is more
friendly to a dry foil, than to that which is too much expofed to rain.
It rejoices in gentle and moderate palling gales, and is liable^to fuffer by

{5) f^r£- Georg, lib. ii. 238.

P 2

cempeftuous

io8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

tempefluous ftormy weather. And this is the quality both of the cli¬
mate and foil, which is the moft to be approved.

CHAP. II.

What Vines muft be planted for Food in Lands near the City.

THE vine is planted either for food to eat, or for a liquor to drink.

It is not expedient to inftitute vineyards for food, unlefs when
the land is fo contiguous to the city, that it may turn to as good account
to fell the fruit thereof to fuch as buy it before we bring it into our
ftorehoufe, as we do apples (i) ; and, when this is the cafe, the early
ripe vines, and fuch as bear firm and hard grapes, with thick tough
fkins, and then the purple-coloured, and the Bumaft (2) and date¬
like grapes (3), and the Rhodian, Libyan (4), and the Ceraunian (y)
alfo, ought especially to be planted ; and not only fuch as can be com¬
mended for their excellent tafte, but alfo for their beautiful appearance,
as the coronary (6), the three-feet-long (7), the uncial (8), and the

(1) Velutipromum. Some editions have pomum, and I have tranlkted it accordingly ; and
the meaning is, that it is expedient to plant vineyards for food, if we can as ealily fell our
grapes to huckfters and others, as we do our apples, pears, <&c. Other copies have promum.
If this is the true reading, then the meaning of the author is, that it is not expedient, unlefs
we can fell the fruit thereof as eafily before we bring it into our ftorehoufes, as we do our
other fruits, when we bring them out of the fame; and then promus is an adjective in this
place, and fruttus promus will fignify fruit laid up in ftore, and afterwards brought forth
for ufe, or to fell, &c.

(2) Bumajli are vines which produce clufters of grapes, like cows udders or dugs. Varro,
lib. ii. c. 5. calls this fort of grape uvam bumammam. B», added to any word, increafes:
the fignification of it ; and, as this author fays, moft part of great things are expreffed
by the addition of this word, which is owing to the great value they antiently put
upon this ufeful animal : and this fort of vine was probably fo called, from the clufters
of grapes refembling a cow’s udder and dugs, both in their bulk and lhape. Some think,
that the berries were round and fwelling, and therefore fo called.

(3) Daftyli, date-like grapes, fhaped like a date, or fmall and long like the finger. The
"French call them raifins a u long grain.

(4) Rhodia <& Libyca vites. Thefe vines have their names from the countries whence
they were brought into Italy.

(5) Ceraunite. lftdorus fays they are fo called from their firy colour.

(6) Stephanita , from <TTi<pa voc, a crown. Pliny fays they are fo called, becaufe they natu¬
rally grow fomewhat like crowns or chaplets of flowers, the leaves running between the
berries, as if they were artificially mixed, and made into coronets ; fo that they cannot be
fo called from the vine itfelf being twifted and formed into the figure of a crown. Thefe
grapes were alfo called forenfes , market-grapes, becaufe they come foon, are faleable for
their beauty, and eafy to be carried. The French call them foirars, which, as father Har-
douin fays, feems to be the old name ftill retained.

(7) Tripedanea vites , three feet long, fo called from the length of their flock, according
to Pliny.

(8) Unci ar ice, by Pliny called unci ales, from the weight of their berries*

quince-

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 109

quince-vines (9) ; as alfo- thofe vines, whofe grapes are put up in veflels,
and are durable, and can be kept during the whole winter, as the Venu-
culan (10), as the Numijian (11), which have been lately found by ex¬
perience to be exceeding proper for thefe ufes.

But, when wine is what we have principally in view, we make choice
of a vine, which is flrong and mighty both in fruit and in firm wood,
becaufe the one contributes very much to the income of the Hufband-
man, and the other to the durablenefs of the flock ; but then that is
the chief and the choicefl, if it neither promifes too quickly, and calls
its flower alfo very early in the beginning of the feafon, nor ripens and
grows mellow too flowly, and alfo eafily repels and Hands out againft
hoar-frofls, fogs, and blafling, and neither rots with fhowers, nor
fhrivels and decays with droughts.

Let us make choice of fuch a vine as this, fuppofe it be but indiffer¬
ently fruitful, provided the place has the reputation of producing wines
of a noble and precious tafle and flavour j for, if they be of a paltry and
bafe tafle, and little accounted of, it is an advantage to plant there every
fort of vine, that bears the mofl fruit, that, by the vafl increafe and
quantity of the fruit, our revenue and yearly income may be augmented.
But whatever conflitution or quality the lands may be of, commonly
champain lands produce the greater quantity of wine ; and fuch as are
hilly, that which is more delicious. Neverthelefs thefe places themfelves,
in a moderate flate of the climate, bring a more plentiful vintage, when
they decline towards the north j but the wines are more generous,
when they lie towards the fouth.

Nor is there any doubt, but fuch is the nature of fome vines, that,
according to the fituation of places, they either excel, or are excelled,
in the goodnefs of their wine. Aminean vines alone (12), a too cold

flate

(9) Cydonitte vites, quince-vines, whofe fruit had fomewhat of the tafte of quinces.

(10) Venucula vitis. Pliny calls it venicula. Horace makes mention of the grapes of this
vine as proper to be put up in pots,/*r. ii. 4, 71. Some think, that this word is formed
of re, augendi particula , and nucleus , as if it iignified grapes with big kernels.

Pliny, lib. xiv. 2. gives no particular defcription of this vine; only fays, that it is called
by different names in different places. Thofe names fignify very little to explain any qua¬
lity peculiar to it. He adds, that they caft their bloffoms very well, and are proper to be
put up in jars. Some think, that they are what the Venetians call now marztmina . Pliny
feems to fay, that, at Tarracina, they took it for the Numifian, which follows here.

(11) blumifiante vites. Pliny does not feem to make them to differ much from the
Venuculan ; fays, that they have no peculiar ftrength in themfelves, but derive all from the
foil, according to the ftrength and goodnefs of which they change their qualities.

(12) Annnineas vites. Some write it only with one w. Macrobius, fat. lib. ii. c. id. fays,
that they had their name from the country where they grew, which, he fays, was where
now Palernum is ; but father Hardouin corrects this, and fays, it ought to be ubi nunc
Salentum ejlj viz. the Salentine land, where antiently was the Eegio Peucetia , Pint. bifi.

no L. J. M. COL U M ELLA Book III.

ftate of the climate excepted, are reported to furpafs all others in flavour
and tafte, tho’ they may degenerate, and, when compared with one
another, yield wine of a more or lefs exquifite tafte. Thefe, tho’ they
all bear the fame name, yet are not all of the fame fort, nor have the
fame appearance. We have known two of them that are fillers, of which
the lefler calls its bloflom fooner and better, and is fit both for the tree
and the frame. Upon the tree it requires fat ground, and, on the frame,
middling : and it far furpalfes the greater, becaufe it endures rains and
winds with greater fortitude ; for the greater is quickly fpoiled in the
bloflom, and more upon frames, than on trees. Therefore it is not fit
for vineyards, and fcarcely alfofor a place where it is fupported by trees,
unle'fs it be in very fat and oufy ground ; for neither does it thrive and
enjoy good health in ordinary and indifferent ground, and much lefs in
that which is poor. It is known by its great number of long branches
of firm wood, and by the largenefs of its leaves, duffers, and grapes. It
is alfo thinner of joints ; and the lefler excels it in the large quantity of
its fruits ; but this is not inferior to it in tafte and flavour : and both thefe
are indeed Aminean vines.

But there are two other vines, that refemble one another, which are
called the twin-Amineam, becaufe they put forth double clullers. They
yield a rougher harlher wine, but equally lafting. The lefler of thefe is
exceeding well known, becaufe it covers the molt famous hills of Vefuvius
and Sorrento in Campania. It is chearful amongft the fummer gales of
the weft wind ; but is afflicted with fouth winds ; therefore, in the other
parts of Italy , it is not fo fit for vineyards as for plantations of trees made
for the fupport of vines ; whereas, in the forefaid countries, the frame
moll commodioufly fupports its firm woody branches, and its fruit,
which it produces not unlike that of the lefler fijler- Aminean, except
that its clufters are double, as the greater twin- Aminean produces alfo
fruit like to the greater fifler- Aminean which lefler twin- Aminean is

nat. lib. iii. fell. 1 6. and a part of this country was called Aminea. It feems they were
firft brought from this country to other parts of Italy ; but they were chiefly cultivated
on mount Vefuvius , a famous hill near Naples , once very remarkable for its noble wines ;
but now, in a great meafure, deftroyed, and made unfit for cultivation, by the frequent
eruptions of the vulcano upon the top of it j as alfo about Sorrento , an antient city about
a 8 or ao miles diftant from Naples. The hills about it are much celebrated, both in for¬
mer and later times, for the excellent wine they produce. There are feveral other reafons
alfigned, why thefe vines are fo called ; but feem to have very little foundation. Pliny
mentions five different forts of them. Our author, who gives a very diftind account of
them, mentions a fixth fort, which he magnifies very much. Servius gives but a poor
reafon why they are called Aminean , viz., quaf fine minio, i. e. rubore , becaufe their wine
is white ; which is true of many other vines befides thefe, and Pliny makes mention of a
black Aminean.

better

4

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY.

better than the greater in this refpe<fl, that it is more fruitful in an in¬
different foil ; for we have already faid, that that does not anfwer but
in very fat ground.

Some approve mofl of the woolly -Amine an vine, which does not
therefore afiume this name, becaufe it only, of all other Aminean vines,
grows white or hoary, with a cotton or down upon it, but becaufe this
efpecially has more of it than the others. It yields indeed good wine,
but lighter than thofe others above-mentioned. It puts forth alfo a great
quantity of firm wood, and therefore carts its bloffoms but very indiffer¬
ently, becaufe of the thicknefs of its branches and leaves ; and the fame
quickly rots after the fruit is ripe.

Over and above the number we have mentioned, there is an Aminean
vine, which is reckoned Angular, not unlike to the greater fijter- Ami¬
nean, but to be preferred to it; firrt, for the make and beautiful appear¬
ance of its rtock, and {hoots, and leaves ; but fomewhat inferior to it in
the flavour and tafte of its wine, tho’ notwithrtanding it is moft gene¬
rous. Next, it is preferable alfo upon the account of its own peculiar
qualities ; for it is both more fertile, and carts its blofl'om better, and
bears thick, clofe, and whitifh clufters, and of a plumper and more
fwelling grape. It does not degenerate in thin poor land, and therefore
it is numbered among the moft fruitful vines.

The Nomentan vines (13) follow next after the Aminean in the
noblenefs of their wine ; but, in fruitfulnefs, they even come before, or
have the precedency; becaufe, as they have a numerous conception, fo,
what they have once brought forth, they preferve and maintain exceed¬
ing well. But of thefe alfo the lefler is the more fertile; and the leaf of
it is more fparingly cut, and its wood is not fo red as that of the Ami¬
nean, from which colour they are called rubellian. The fame are alfo
called dreggy vines, becaufe they bring more dregs than other vines do.
Nevertheless they make up this difadvantage by the multitude of clufters,
which they produce even upon a frame, but better upon a tree. They
fuller valiantly both winds and fhowers, and quickly cart their bloffoms,
and therefore ripen the fooner, bearing with every inconveniency, except
heat ; for, becaufe they have clufters with fmall berries, and hard {kins,
they ftirink with violent heats. They rejoice moft in fat land, becaufe
it is able to give fruitfulnefs to vines that are naturally fmall and (len¬
der.

(13) Numentana iites, vines growing about Momentum, formerly a city belonging to
the Sabines , now a village about ten miles from Rome , upon the river Anien or Teverone.
Pliny, who ranks them next to the Aminean , fays, that their firm hard wood was red ; for
which reafon they were by fome called rubella ?, red vines.

Eugenia n

112 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

Eugenian vines (14) bear, without any inconveniency, with a cold
and dewy foil and climate, feeing they grow on mount Albano ; for they
fcarcely anfwer their name after they have changed their place. This is
alfo the cafe with Allobrogian vines (15), the delicioufnefs of whofe
wine is changed with the country.

The three Apian (16) vines are commended alfo for their great and
excellent qualities. They are all fertile, and fit enough for both the
frame and the trees ; yet the one with bare leaves is more generous;
for the two that are woolly, tho’ they are alike in the make and fhape
of their branches, leaves, and fhoots, yet they are unlike and different
in the quality of the liquor that flows from them ; for one of them is
flower in receiving the carioufnefs of antiquity. In a fat foil they are
exceeding fertile, and in an indifferent alfo, they are fruitful, and their
fruit is early ripe ; therefore they are very proper for cold places. They
yield a fweet wine ; but they are not good for the head, nerves, and
veins. Unlefs they be gathered in due time, they become a prey to the
rains, winds, and bees; and, becaufe the bees prey upon them, and plun¬
der them, they are furnamed from them.

And thefe are the vines, which are moft celebrated for their precious
tafte. Neverthelefs vines of the fecond note may be commended alfo
for their increafe and fruitfulnefs, fuch as the Bituric (17) and the
Bafilic (18), the lefler of which the Spaniards call cocolubis. Both of

them

( 14) Eugenia rites, a Greek name, importing the noblenefs and generoufnefs of the
wine they produce. When tranfplanted, they lofe their quality, as is the cafe of many others,
which leave their excellency behind them, and never carry it elfewhere. Thefe vines flou-
nfhed on mount Albano, near the antient city Alba in Latum , whither they were brought
from the Taorminan hills in Sicily , as Pliny fays.

(15) Vites Allobrogic a. The Allobrogians were a people that inhabited the country that
lies between the lake of Geneva, the Rhone, and the Alps, comprehending all Savoy on this
tide mount Seats, and a part of Dauphiny. Pliny fays, that they throve in cold places, ripened
with the frofts, and were of a black colour.

(16) Apiana vites, lb called from the liking that bees have to them ; for they feed gree¬
dily upon them. Our author mentions three forts of them, of one of which, he fays, tar -
dins recipit cariem antiquit atis ; which, I believe, is applicable noc to the vine, but to the
wine. By this carioufnefs of antiquity, the antients meant a certain agreeablenefs of tafte and
flavour, which certain wines contradfed by long-keeping, Pliny, lib. xv. c. 2. Blanda rive¬
ter ati vini caries ad fervandum invitat. Thefe wines were at firft fweet, but contracted
an agreeable roughnefs by long-keeping. Hardouin fays, that this grape is now called uva
rnufcate/la, becaufe the flies attack it with their darts.

(17) Vitis Biturica , fo called from the country where they grow about Bourges in Berry
in Prance. Father Hardouin thinks, that they comprehend alfo fuch as grow about Bourdeaux ,
and in Gafcony.

(18) Bafdica vitis feems to have its name from its (lately appearance.

Our author makes two forts of this vine, the lefler and the greater; and Pliny alfo fays,
that, in Spain, there are two forts of them ; that it is thin of clufters, and endures the vio-
k-at heats, and the fouth winds; that one fort bears an oblong berry, the other a round
k 1 one ;

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 113

them are next to the very bed of all ; for their wine bears with long- '
keeping, and, by years, it arrives to fome degree of goodnefs. Now,
thefe indeed excel all the other vines I have before mentioned in fruit-
fulnefs, as alfo in their patience, becaufe they endure moll courageoufly
both whirlwinds and (bowers, and flow very well ; nor do they fail in
lean ground. They bear the colds better than they do rains, and rains
better than droughts j neverihelefs they are not grieved and made fad
with the heats.

Next to thefe the V ifitla and the lefTcr Argitis (19) thrive and re¬
joice in land that is but indifferent ; for, in that which is fat, by their
too great ltrength, they become luxuriant ; and, in that which is lean,
they come up (mail, and empty of fruit. They are more friendly to the
frame, than to trees. But the Argitis is even fertile upon high trees,
•and over-abounds in avail: quantity of firm wood, and clutters of grapes.
The ViJ'ula is fitter for the loweft (lories of the frame. It puts forth
but (hort hard wood, and a broad leaf, by the largenefs of which it de¬
fends its fruits exceeding well againtt the hail ; which neverthelefs fall
to the ground, if they be not gathered as foon as they are ripe. They
rot alfo with too much moifture before they fall off.

There are alfo the Helvolce (20), which fome call various or parti¬
coloured. They are neither purple-coloured, nor black, and are fo called
(if I am not miflaken) from their carnation-colour. That which is more
of the black is preferable for the abundance of its wine ; but the other,
that is nearer to a purple colour, is more precious and valuable for its
tafle. The colour of the berries does not appear equal to the eye neither
in the one nor the other. Both of them yield more or lefs white mud
every other year by turns. They clothe a tree bed, but a frame alfo

one ; and that they gather them the laft of all ,• the Tweeter the wine of the leffer is, the
better it is; that the fweer, with age, becomes rough, and the rough becomes Tweet; that
they produce fruit in great abundance; but are hurtful to the head, tho’ of great benefit to-
the bladder. According to fome authors, there is great plenty of this fort of vine in the
kingdom of Granada in 'Spain.

(19) Vi fid a and the leffer Argitis. Pliny gives us no reafon why vitis Vif/ila is fo called ;
only lays, that it is very humourfome and whimfical in chufing its foil, can neither beat-
continued heat nor cold; that it rots in a fat, and does nor grow at all in a lean ground ;
but delicately fceks a middle Temperature, and therefore is very familiar to the Sabinian
hills. He fays, that its grape is indecora vifu> ugly to the eye, but pleafint to the tafle. It
would be firetching Etymology too far to lay, it is fo called, becaufe it is ugly to look up¬
on. Argitis feems to be fo called from its white colour, and probably of its wood and
leaves. I do not find it under this name in Pliny. Hardouin thinks, that the lelfer Vijitla is
by Columella called Argitis ; bur, according to the account he gives of it, he feems to
mean a different vine, making two forts of the Argitis , and not calling the Idler Vifula
Argitis , as he thinks. Pliny feems to make two forts of the Vifula , the lelfer and the
greater, as Columella does of the Argitis.

(20) HelvJ.Cy fo called from their remarkable colour, as Pliny alfo fays, which is a
middle between purple and black, which, in Latin , is called helvus. They are alfo called
'variance, their berries feeming to change their colour.

tolerably

1 14 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

tolerably well. They are alfo fruitful in an indifferent foil, as the Pre¬
plan vines (21), the leffer and the greater; but thefe are more com¬
mended for the generoufnefs of their wine ; and they fhoot out into
much wood, and abound in boughs and leaves, and they foon ripen.

The Albuelis (22) (as Celfus fays) is more profitable upon a hill, than
upon a plain ; upon a tree, than upon a frame ; upon the top of a tree,
than upon the lower part of it. It both bears plenty of grapes, and
abounds in firm wood. For thofe fmall Greek vines, as the Marcotic[zf),

' Thafian (2-j,), PJ'ythian (25), Sophortian (26), tho’ they have a tolerable
good tatte, yet, in our climates, they yield but little wine, from the thin-
nefs of their clutters, and the fmallnefs of their berries. Neverthelefs
the black Inerticula (the fluggifh vine), which fome Greeks call Ame-
thyfion (27), may be placed, as it were, in the fecond tribe, becaufe it
both yields a good wine, and is harmlefs ; from which alfo it took its
name, becaufe it is reckoned dull, and not to have fpirit enough to affedt
the nerves, tho’ it is not dull and flat to the tafte.

CelJ'us makes a third clafs of thofe that are commended for their fruit-
fulnefs only; as the three Helvenacian vines (28), of which the two

larger

(21) Pretia or precise vites. Columella fecms'to infinuate, thatthey are fo called from the
preciouinefs of their wines. Pliny frays, that their grapes are very proper to be put up and
kept in jars; and that they have abundance of hard wood, and a leaf like pariley, i. e.
their leaves are cut very deep. Hardouin fays, they are like thofe the Burgundians call rai-
f?/s fend ans. Serviics fays, they were called precise, quaji pr<ecoqua, becaufe they ripen
before others.

(22) Albuelis vitis. Neither Pliny, Columella , nor Ifidorus , tell us why it is fo called ;
whether from its colour or place, I know not.

(23) Mareotides , Mareotis , a country in Egypt. There is a lake there of the fame name.
Thcle vines have their name from the place where they firft grew, and probably were
thence tranfported into Greece , and from Greepe into Italy ; which may be the reafon why
Columella ranks them among the fmall Greek vines.

(24) Thajia vites. Thefe vines have their name from the iiland Thafus , by fome called
Thajfns and Thafus. It lies in the JEgean fea, not far from Lemnos , of old, as Pliny fays,
called Aeria or VEthria , now Thafo.

(25) PJythia vites. I don’t find in Pliny , or any other author I have looked into, why
they were fo called. Virgil mentions them, and fays, that their grapes were bell for drying
in the fun, and afterwards making wine of them ; which, I fuppofe, he means, when he
fay s,pafo pfythia utilior. Servius , and other commentators I have feeri, skip over it. Jen-
fons edition of Columella has Pythia vites.

(26) Sophorticc vites. It is doubtful whether it ought to be thus read, or Sophrotite. Pliny
fays nothing of them under this name. There is a fmall ifland in the VEgean fea they call
Sophonia\ fo that perhaps it ought to be Sophoni<e vites.

(27) Inerticula nigra. The Greeks call it dfid-vcou, from the little effedl that its wine
has to make one drunk. Pliny lays, that there is more reafon to call it the fober vine ; and
that its wine is commendable when it is very old.

(28) Helvenaca: vites. Pliny calls them likewife Uelvicas vites , ager Helviorum, the
Vivarais in Prance. The town is called Viviers upon the Phone. Pliny fpeaks of Alba Hel¬
ving and Cafar , in his feventh book, fays, that mount Gehenna feparates the Arverni from
the Htlvii ; fo that the Hehenian vines were fuch as were originally of the country of the

Helvii .

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 115

larger are, by no means/ efteemed equal to the lefler, either in the good-
nefs or abundance of their mud:. One of thefe, which the inhabitants
of Gaul call Emarcum , yields an indifferent wine ; the other, which
they call the long, as alfo the greedy vine, yields a fordid paltry wine,
and not in fo great quantity, as from the number of its duffers of grapes
our firft hopes promile us. The leaif and beff of the three is mod: eafily
known by its leaf ; for, of all other vines whatfoever, it bears the
rounded: ; and is commendable, becaufe it patiently endures droughts
far beyond any others, and bears colds, provided neverthelefs they be
without rains; and becaufe, in fome places alfo, its wine is pouted into
vedels, in order to be kept for years, till it be very old ; and efpecially
becaufe it alone, by its fruitfulnefs, recommends and gives reputation
alfo to the leaned ground.

But the S 'pionian vine (29) is very bountiful and liberal of its mud,
and is rather fertile in the largenefs, than in the number of its chillers,
as the olive-like vine (30), the Murgentine (31), which is the fame with
the Pompeian , the Numtjian ; as the Venuculan (32), which is the fame
with the Scirpula and Sticula ; the black Fregellan (33), the Meri-
can (34), the Rhcetian (35-), and the greater Arcelacan , which, of all

Helvii. Oar author makes three forts of them, one of which the inhabitants called emc,r -
cium, perhaps from its being apt to fade and wither. It is diftinguifhed by the roundnds
of its leaf.

(-9) Spionia vitis. Pliny fays, fome call it fpinea , probably from its having leaves, or
fome other things, prickly, or like to thorns, about it. He fays, that it thrives beft in a
moift, ra;ny, and foggy country ; and for this reafon it is peculiar to the country of Ravenna.

(30) Oleaginea vitis. Pliny fays, that this vine is fo called, from the refemblance it bears
to the olive.

(51) Murgentina vitis, from the city Murgentum in Sicily. Ager Murgentinus is men¬
tioned by Tally , in his oration againft Verres. Columella fetms to make it the fame with
the vitis Pompeian a, fo called from Pompeii, a town in Campania , at the mouth of the
river Samo It was once a municipal town, but now ruinous.

(3a) Vitis v macula. Sometimes it is called venuncula ; others read it venicula. It is fo
called, beciufe its berries are diftmguifhed and marked with veins and lines, and chanelled,
as it were. It is a'fo called Jlicula, a from the regular manner wherewitji it is thus

marked. It is by Pliny alfo called fcripula, Jcirtuia, and fcnbula, all which cannot be true
readings ; but the name (cems to import, that the grains or berries have fomething, as it
were, written upon them.

(33) Fregellan <e vites, frcm FregelU, once a famous town and colony in Latium. Some
authors fay, it is now called Monte Corvo.

(34) Vitis merica. In Pliny it is with a diphthongue. In fome manuferipts it is metica
Why fo called, is vey uncertain. Pliny fays, it is exceeding firm againft rain, and all kind
of weather. It bears black grapes, and its wine grows red, when it is long kept.

(35) Rhatica vitis , from the country where they originally grew. Rhastia comprehends
the country of the Grifons, Tyrol , &c. They cultivated them much in the Valteline , and
upon the river Addua. Pliny lays, that there was 2 vine of this name, which grew below
the Alps, upon the fea-coafts, towards Genoa, which produced very bad wine; that the
grapes had very thin skins, and but one kernel; that they were very different from che
other Rhietian vines firll- mentioned.

Q^2 the

n6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

the vines we have known, abounds moft in grapes. By many it is falfly
thought to be the Argitis. For thofe others, which have lately
come to my knowledge, I mean the arbour or gallery-vine, the Irti-
ola { 36), and Feriola vines, I would not, for certain, affirm in what
clafs they ought to be reckoned 3 becaufe, tho’ I know, that they are
fruitful enough, neverthelefs I have not been able, as yet, to judge of
the goodnefs of the wine they produce.

We find alfo, that there is one early-ripe vine, which, before this
time, we knew nothing of, and which, in the Greek language, we find,
is ul'ually called Dracontion (3 7), which, for its fruitfulnefs and delici-
oufnefs, may be compared to the Arcelacan , Biturican , and Bajilican
vines, and, for the generoufnefs of its wine,- to the Aminean. More¬
over, there are many other forts of vines, of which we can neither tell
the number, nor the names, with any certainty to be depended upon *
for, as the poet fays (38),

4 It ferves no end their numbers to defcribe.

1 The man, that’s fond of this laborious talk,

4 With equal eafe, may learn how many fands,

4 By weftern winds, are tofs’d in Libyan plains.5

Becaufe all countries whatfoever, and almoft all particular parts of coun¬
tries, have their own peculiar kinds of vines, which they name accord¬
ing to their own cufiom and language. Some flocks alfo have changed
their names with their places ; fome of them alfo, by changing their
places, have departed from their peculiar quality} fo that they cannot
be known and difcerned from one another. Therefore, in this Italy itfelf,
not to fay in the fo widely extended globe of the whole earth, they
vary their names. Neighbouring nations alfo difagree in their names,
and give them different appellations; wherefore it is the part of a pru¬
dent mafter not to take up the ftudent’s time with hawking after a no¬
menclature of this kind, which they can never make themfelves mafters
of, but, upon the whole, to lay down that as a precept, which both
Celfas fays, and before him Marcus Cato, that no fort of vine ought to
be planted, but that which is approved by fame ; and none to be kept

.(36) Irtiola vitis. Pliny fays, that this vine abounds in Umbria, and about Ancona ; but
why it is fo called, no reafon is given by any of the ruftic writers, which is the cafe with
refped: to feveral others here mentioned ; and it fignifies nothing to indulge one’s fancy,
when it gives no light to the thing.

(37) Dracontion, probably fo called from the twifting and winding of its branches, and
the colour and appearance of its bark, refembling a dragon.

(38) Virg. Georg, lib. ii. 103.

for

► ~j

Chap. III. 0/ HUSBANDRY. n7

for a long time, unlefs it be approved by experiment ; and 'Julius
Grcecinus fays, that, where many advantages of the country fhall in¬
vite us to plant a noble vine, we will inquire and look out for one that
is generous. Where there is nothing at all, or not much, that may en¬
courage and allure us, we will rather purfue and fearch after fruitful-
nefs, which, in the fame proportion, is not fo much excelled by the
price, as it does excel by its abundance. But, concerning this opinion,
tho’ I myfelf, a little before, was of the fame mind, nevertheless what
my fecret judgment is, upon clofer condderation, I fhall prefently tell
in its proper place ; for I am refolved to teach after what manner vine¬
yards may be condituted equally fruitful, and productive alfo at the
fame time of a precious liquor.

CHAP. III.

That there is noth'mg of greater Advantage , and more expedient
for Hifbandjnen , than to cultivate Vineyards .

NOW, before I come to difcourfe of the planting of vines, I don’t
think it improper to lay, as a certain foundation for our future
deputation, that we have before throughly weighed, and wifely confi-
dered, whether the culture of vineyards will enrich a matter of a family;
for it is almod to no purpofe to give directions about planting them,
while that which is the chief point, and firft to be confidered, is not
yet granted ; viz. whether or not we ought to have any vines at all ?
And this very many people are in fo great doubt of, that many avoid
it, and are much afraid of employing their land in this manner, and
think, that an edate in meadows, padurage, or copfes, is more to be
defired and wilhed for ; for, as to lands planted with trees for fupport-
ing vines, there has been alfo no fmall difpute among authors, SaJ'erna
difliking and rejecting this kind of land, and Tremellius greatly approv¬
ing of the fame. But we fhall take this opinion alfo into confideration
in its own place.

In the mean time they, who ftudy agriculture, mud be taught this
in the fird place, that the income of vineyards is the mod plentiful and
abundant of any; and, that I may take no notice of the happy condition
of lands in antient times, of which both Marcus Cato long ago, and after¬
wards

1 18 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

wards Terentius Varro (i), have given us an account, that each jugerum
of vineyards did yield fix hundred urns of wine (2) ; and Varro pofi—
tively affirms this in his firft book of Huffiandry • and that this did not
ufe to happen in one region only, but was the ufual quantity, that both
the Faventine land, and alfo that part of Gallia Cifalpina, now called
Picenum , did produce : yes, marry, thefe things were for thole times !
But, at this prefent time, the Nomentan region (3) is very much cele¬
brated by fame, and is in very great reputation, and efpecially that part
of it, which Seneca , a perfon of an excellent genius and learning, does
pofiefs, upon whofe ettate it is certainly known, that each jugerum of
his vineyards have, for the moft part, yielded eight cullei (4) : for the
things that happened in our Ceretanian vineyards (y) feem fomewhat
flrange and extraordinary, and have fomething of a prodigy, that, in
your land, a certain vine ffiould exceed the number of two thoufand
clutters of grapes ; and, with me, eighty flocks, planted not two years
before, fhould produce fo much as feven cullei', and that the bell vine¬
yards fhould yield an hundred amphorcz (6) per jugerum , when mea-

(1) Varro fays, lib. i. c. 2. that Cato , in his libro originum , gave this account of the vaft
produce of vineyards; and that this did not happen in one place only, but was common
in the Faventine land, or the territory of Faventia, a town upon th tJEmilian road, about
20 miles from Ravenna, now called Faenza ; as alfo in Picenum , a part of Gallia Cifalpina ,
now called Marca d' Ancona, and fubjedt to the Pope.

(2) Six hundred urns, which make 300 ansphora, or 15 cullei , amount in Englifb wine-
meafure to 2150 gallons, or 35 hogfheads eight gallons and a fmall fraction more. The

gall, pints, fol. inc. dec.

urn contained 3 47 5,33. Our author feems fcarcely to believe this vaft produce; and
lays, that it was only for thofe antient times, and fo paiTes to what he knew himfelf.

(3) Nomentana regia, the territory of Momentum, a town in Sabina , upon the river
Anien or Tiverone , about 20 miles ftom Rome. It is now a village. Here Seneca , the fa¬
mous moral philofopher, well known by his writings [fill extant, had an eftate. He was
tutor to the emperor Nero , who, for fome time after his acceflion to the empire, was very
fond of him, and bellowed great riches upon him; bur, as tyrants cannot long endure
good men, he added this wickednefs to his other monftrous crimes, that he put him to
death. It is probable our author wrote this book, before Seneca was entruiled with the
education of Nero.

(4) Culleus or culcus was the greateft meafure of liquid things among the Romans. Tt cnn-

gall, pints, fol. inc.dcc.

tained 20 amphora or 40 urns, and, in Engli/h wine-meafure, contained 143 3 11,095

fo that 8 cullei make 1147 gallons, or 18 hogfheads and 13 gallons, and 7 cullei contained
1003 gallons jj pirns, or 15 hogfheads 58 gallons and 72 pints, or thereabout.

(5) Ceretanian vineyards. The Ceretani weie a people of Hifpania Citerior. The wine
that grew in their country was in great requeft, and mentioned by feveral authors. Colu¬
mella mull here mean either the vineyards which he had in that country, or probably
vineyards which he had planted in Italy with vines brought from thence, to which he gave
the name of the country from whence he brought the vines.

(6) Amphora , from the Greek word eLyviyopioc, or, by a fyncope, dypo puls, ft is fo
called, from its two handles for carriage. It contained 2 urns or 8 con git, in Englijb wme-

. gall. pint. fol. inc. dec.

rneafure 7 1 10.66 fo chat 100 amphora: contained 717 gallons, or n hogfheads 24

gallons, or thereabouts.

clows,

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. rig

dows, padurages, and woods, feem to do mighty well for, and to turn
to very good account to, the owner, if they bring him in a hundred fej-
tertii (7) on each jugerum ; for we can fcarcely remember when corns,
in the greateft part of Italy indeed, have anfwered with a fourth part
of this.

Why then is this thing in fo great difreputation ? Grcecinus fa vs,
that it is not from its own fault, but from mens ; firft, becaufe nobody
gives diligence in examining and trying the plants ; and therefore moil’,
part of men plant vineyards of the word: kind. Then they don’t cheridi
and nourilh them, after they are planted, in fuch a manner, that they;
may grow ftrong, and fhoot up, before they are parched and burnt up
with the heat ; but if peradventure they grow up, they cultivate them
negligently. Now, from the very beginning, they think, that it is of no
importance what place they plant ; yea, they even pick out the very
word; part of their lands, as if that ground, which can bear no other
thing, were only the fitted: for this item; but they don’t even fo much
as throughly underfland the way of letting them, nor put it in practice
when they do underftand it: alfo they feldom prepare, and lay up be¬
forehand, a portion or dowry, that is, the necedary furniture and im¬
plements for vineyards ; whereas this thing, ifnegle&ed, exhauftsmany
days labour, and always empties the mailer of the family’s coffers.

Mod: people indeed are mighty intent upon having as much fruit for
the prefent as is podible, and make no provifion for the time to come ;
but, as if they lived altogether from hand to mouth, and only had regard
for the prefent time, they fo force the vines, and load them with fo
many fruit-bearing branches, that they have no regard for the intered: of
their pofterity. After having been guilty of all, or at lead: of mod, of
thefe things, they will rather do any thing than confefs their own fault;
and they complain, that the vineyards don’t anfwer their expectation,
which they themfelves have dedroyed, either through covetoufnefs,.
ignorance, or negligence. But if there be any, who, when they have
added diligence to knowledge, cannot indeed (as I reckon) receive forty
or thirty, yet, as Grcecinus fays, who makes the lowed: computation,

(7) The 'Roman fejlertius was a filver coin, equal in value to 2± ajfes, and is fo called
from femiflertius , i. e. 2 ajfes and the half of the third. It was equal to the fourth part of
the denarius, as is clear from the beft claffical authors; which I need not mention. The
denarius , which was the chief filver-coin among the Romans , weighed about 62 grains,
and is, by the beft judges, computed to be worth yd. £ EngUfJj , allowing 8 Englifh grains
to the filver-peny ; fo that, according to this valuation, 100 Jefiertii amount to 16 s. 1 d.£
which was the common or ordinary yearly rent of a jugerum of pafture, meadow, or copfe
land.

if’

120 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

if they fhall receive twenty amphora (8) of each jugerum , they will
eafily, in the increafe of their eftate, furpafs thofe wiio l\ug, and are
mighty fond of their hay and their pot-herbs: nor is he miftaken in this,
becaufe, as a good reafoner, and a diligent accountant, after he had
made his calculation, he faw, that this kind of Hufbandry conduced
moll to improve his eftate*

For let us fuppofe the largeft expences that vineyards may require,
neverthelefs feven jugera (9) don't require above the labour of one Vine-
dreffer ; which the vulgar indeed value at a very low price, and think,
that even a malefadlor, expofed to public fale, may be purchafed for that
purpofe; but I, who dilfent from the opinion of very many people,
think, that an excellent Vine-dreffer, purchafed at an high price, is one
of the firft and principal things, and of the greateft advantage ; and,
fuppofe he be bought for fix, or rather for eight thoufand fejiertii (10),
when I reckon that the ground itfelf, confiding of feven jugera , is
purchafed for juft fo many thoufand fejiertii , viz. feven thoufand ( 1 1) ;
and that the vineyards, with their dowry, that is, with flakes or props,
and willows, are planted for two thoufand fejiertii per jugerum (12);

then

gall, pints roods, lq. poles fq. feet dec.

(8) 20 amphora per jugerum amount to 143 upon 2 18 250.05 Engliflj mea-

fure.

(9) 7 jugera make 4^ acres.

(10) 8000 fejiertii , the price of an excellent Vine-dreffer, make in Eitglijh money
6\l. 1 1 s. 8 d.

(1 1 ) The price of the land proper for vineyards is computed by our author at 1000
feflertii per jugerum^ which, for the whole feven jugera-, amounted to 7000 fejiertii , which,
according to the value of t hefeflertius before-mentioned, make in Englilb money 56 /. lor.

d. fo that a jugerum of fuch kind of land being worth 8 /. 1 s. 5^ d. an Englijb acre,
according to this rate, was worth about 13 /. it. id. the Roman jugerum being to the
Engliflj acre near as 10 to 16. as has been often faid. Here it may be proper to obferve,
that totidem millibus , in the text, do not refer to the 8000 jeflertii paid for the Vine-dreffer,
but to the laft-mentioned number, jeptem jugerum ; and fignify the fame thing, as if the
author had faid, that he counted the land at 1000 feflertii per jugerum fo that, there being
7 jugera here mentioned, his meaning by totidem millibus is, that he computed the land
at 7000 feflertii. This is manifeft by adding the feveral fums together, which, the text
fays, amount to 29,000 fefertti j whereas, if thefe two words referred to the 800a fejiertii
paid for the Vine-dreffer, they would, with the 14,000 fejiertii expended upon planting the
7 jugera, amount to 30,000 feflertii. The not adverting to this has been the occafion of a
miftake made by a very worthy and learned gentleman, in his diflercations on antient coins,
weights, meafures, <jrc. p. 155. chap. viii. Of the price of lands among the Romans ^ where,
from this place of Columella , he makes a wrong calculation of the value of a jugerum of
land at that time among the Romany and of an Engliflo acre of land after the fame rate.
This miftake any perfon would eaftly fall into, who did not carefully attend to what fol¬
lows after thefe two words, and omit to add the different fums there mentioned together.

(12) 2000 feflertii , i. e. 1 61. 2 s. 11 d. computed to be the expence of planting one
jugerum of vineyard, which amount to 14,000 feflertii for the whole 7 jugera ; add to this
fum the price of the Vine-dreffer, viz. 8000 feflertii, and the price of the 7 jugera of
Jancf, viz. 7000 fejiertii) the whole amounts to 29,000 jeflertii principal money laid out for
4 ~ pup-

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 121

then the price of all thefe, added together, amounts to twenty-nine
thoufand fefertii : add to this fum the interefi: at fix per cent, per an¬
num for two years, when the vineyards, being, as it were, in their in¬
fancy, bear no fruit, which amounts to three thoufand four hundred
and eighty fejlertii j the whole principal and interefi: amount to thirty-
two thoufand four hundred and eighty fefertii ; which fum if a Huf-
bandman would make his vineyards, as it were, debtors for, in the
fame manner as an ufurer does with his debtors, fo as the owner may
have the forefaid interefi: of fix per cent, per annum , he ought to receive
yearly one thoufand nine hundred and fifty fefertii (13). By which
computation neverthelefs the yearly income of the feven jugera , even
according to the opinion of Grcecinus , exceeds, or is much better than,
the interefi; of thirty-two thoufand four hundred and eighty fejlertii j
for, fuppofe the vineyards were of the very worft: fort, yet, if they be
cultivated, each jugerum will certainly produce a culleus of wine (14.) j
and fuppofe the forty urns may be fold for three hundred fefertii ,
which is the loweft: price wine can be fuppofed to be fold at, neverthe¬
lefs the feven cullei make up the fum of two thoufand and one hundred
Jefertii (iy). Moreover, this fum exceeds the interefi: of fix per cent .
and this calculation, which we have made, comprehends Gr acinus's
computation. But we are of opinion, that thofe vineyards ought to be
extirpated, which yield lefs than three cullei of wine the jugerum (16) ;
and yet we have made our computation, fo as if there were no quick-
fets to be taken up out of the paftinated ground, when that very article

purchafmg and planting 7 jugera of vineyard. This, in Englif} money, comes to 234 /.
2f. %hd.

The intereft of 29,000 [epertii for two years, at fix per cent, is 3480 fepertii , which,
added to the principal, make 32,480 feperti i, or, in Englijh money, about 262 l. 3/. 6d.
which is the whole charge of purchafing and planting the 7 jugera of land, and the two
years intereft before it is fuppofed to anfwer.

(13) The intereft of 32,480 fefertii at 6 per cent, is I948f fepertii; but the text, in the
copies I have feen, has 1950. Probably the author was willing to exprels an even fum,
without a fraction, or elfe there is an error in the copies. This intereft amounts, in Engli/b
money, to about 15/. 14*. 10 d.

(14) Singula jugera , &c. The author fays, that vineyards of the worft kind, if culti¬
vated, would produce per jugerum a culleus of wine, i. e. about f of an Englif) acre would

gall, pints, fol. inc. dec.

produce 143 3 11.09s, or 2 hogfheads 17 gallons and 3 pints, with the fradfion, which,
the author lays, when fold at the loweft price, will bring 300 fepertii, or 2 /. 8r. 5 % d.
At this rate a gallon comes to about 4 d. but this is fuppofed to be both of the worft
vineyards, and of the worft wine, and confequently the loweft price that wine could then
be fuppofed to be fold at.

(15) The 7 cullei make up the fum of 2100 fepertii, or 16 l. 19s. o %d.

( 16 ) Three cullei of wine the jugerum, i.e. 430 gallons and 2 pints. Our au hor fays,
fuch vineyards, which did not yield this quantity, ought to be extirpated, i. e. which did
not yield xo hoglheads and 20 gallons an Englift) acre.

R alone

122 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

alone may, by the price it bears, free the ground of all expences what-
foever, provided it be not provincial, but Italian land.

Nor ought this to remain a doubt with any perfon, after he has
looked into, and conlidered, both our computation and that of Julius
Atticus j for we, at this prefent time, fet twenty thoufand {hoots or
cuttings amongft the rows of vines upon one jugerum of vineyard ; he
plants four thoufand lefs. But, fuppofe his way to be the beft, yet there
is no place, even tho’ it be ever fo bad, which will not yield a greater
profit than the charges it has had beftowed upon it. But let us fuppofe,
that, by the carelefihefs of the Vine-drefier, fix thoufand of the plants
fhould perifh, yet the remaining ten thoufand any farmer of vine¬
yards (17) will willingly purchafe for three thoufand J'eJlertii (18), and
gain by them : which fum exceeds, by its third part, the two thoufand
J'eJlertii , which, we faid before, was the charge that the planting of a
jugerum of vineyard amounts to, altho’ we, by oui care, have now
brought things to fuch an improvement, that the Ruftics purchafe of
me quickfets very chearfully at fix hundred Jejlertii a thoufand. But
another perfon will fcarcely be able to come this length ; for nobody
will eafily believe, that there is fo great abundance of wine upon our
fmall parcel of land, as you, Silvinus , very well know. I have there¬
fore fixed the quickfets at an ordinary and common price, that they
who, through ignorance, are afraid to meddle with this part of Hus¬
bandry, may be brought over to my opinion, without any one perfon
diflenting from it; therefore either the advantage we {hall make of our
paftinated ground, or the hope we have of future vintages, ought to en¬
courage us to plant vineyards : and, feeing we have proved, that it
is confiftent with reafon to plant them, we fhall now give precepts and
directions for inftituting them, and putting them into due order (20).

chap.

(17) Redemptor. This word is applied by authors to many different things. Fejlus i ays,
that antiently redejnptores were fuch as undertook to do or furnifh any thing for the pub¬
lic, and, after performance, were to receive a fum of money. Afterwards the word came
to be ufed for any perfon, who hired the ufe of any thing, and was obliged to pay a cer¬
tain fum of money, or fome other confideration, for the fame. In this place it muft fignify
a farmer of a vineyard, who commonly paid the half of the fruit thereof.

(18) 10,000 vine- plants fold for 3000 feflertii , in Englifi money 24/. 4 s. 4 \d.

(19) 600 feflertii , the price of 1000 quickfets or vine-plants, i. e. 4/. 16 s. ic \d. Eng-
lijh money.

(20) At the end of this chapter it may not be amifs to obferve, that Columella makes
ufe of nu?nus, numus feflertius, and feflertius , as equivalent terms denoting the fame fum.

It may likewife be of fome ufe to obferve his manner of expreffing the rate of the
intereft of money at the time he wrote; and, in order to underftand his expreffion, we
muft know, that, among the Romans , the higheft legal intereft was one per cent, a month,
or twelve per cent, a year; and that it was the cuftom to pay this one per cent, on the
calends of every month, from which came the phrafe trifles calendce. And, as this one per

cent.

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY.

123

CHAP. IV.

What Tilings he ought to ohferve , who plants Vmeyards .

WHOEVER has the making of vineyards much at heart, let
him beware, above all things, of chufing to entruft them rather
to the care of another perfon, than to his own j nor let him purchafe
any quickfets, but let him plant at home fhoots and cuttings of the
mod: approved kind, and make a nurfery of vines, out of which he
may cloath his lands with vineyards ; for fuch ft range plants, as are
tranfplanted from a different quarter, are not fo familiar to our foil, as
thofe that are natives of it, and brought up in it; therefore, as if they
were of a foreign extraction, they greatly dread a change of climate and
fituation : but neither can they give us any certain evidence, that they
are of the generous kind, feeing it is uncertain, whether he who planted
them did fet that fort of fhoot, which had been carefully examined,
tried and approved : wherefore the fpace of two years mud: not at all
be thought long, within which time plants come fuch a length, as duly
to anfwer our expectation, feeing, as I faid, it will always turn to good
account to have fet a Item of an excellent kind.

Then, after thefe things, let him remember to be very exaCt in chuf¬
ing a place for the vineyards, which when he is come to a final refolu-
tion about, let him know, that he mud give the greated diligence to
padinate it as it ought to be ; which when he has throughly done, let

cent, was the hundredth part of the principal, it was therefore called centefma ufura ; and
tho’ it was not contrary to law to take fo great inrereft, yet it was, for the mod part, ac¬
counted oppreffion : fo that it was common enough to take fix or eight per ce?it. more or
lefs, according as the borrower had credit, and could find a reafonable lender. However,
the ufura centefma was the integer, which authors had in view, when they mentioned the
quantum ofintereft. It is alfo further necefifary to know, that, in order to exprefs any inte¬
ger, they made ufe of the name of a brafs coin they called as, which confifted of twelve
ounces or divifions, each of which had a different appellation ; fo, to exprefs any part of
the integer, they gave it the name of that part or divifion of the as, which correfponded
to it. Thus, to exprefs the whole centefma ufura, they faid ajfes ufura', and to exprefs a
part, they faid triens ufura, quadrant ufura , &c. through ail the divifions of it. Thus
Columella , in this chapter, to exprefs \ per cent, a month, and fix per cent, a year, calls it
femijfs ufurarum. And, that this is his meaning, we may eafily fee, by calculating the
feveral fums mentioned in the text ; fo, according to this analogy, he would have faid
triens ufurarum to exprefs four per cent . a year, and | per cent, a month ; quadrant ufura¬
rum, three per cent, per annum, and * per cent, a month ; dodrans ufurarum, nine per cent.
a year, and ^ per cent, a month; and fo of all the reft of the divifions of the at, corre-
fponding to the centefma ufura. Some authors indeed have exprefifed this matter differ¬
ently ; but they muft mean the fame thing.

R 2 him,

124 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

him, with no lefs care, plant the vine j and, after he has planted it, let
him apply himfelf to the culture of it with the greateft fedulity ; for
this is the chief and principal point, as it were, in all expences, becaufe
it confifis in this, whether a mafter of a family has a£ted better or worfe
in committing his money to the earth, than if he (hould finger it in
idlenefs, and not employ it at all. Therefore I fhall now profecute, in
their order, each of thefe things I have propofed.

CHAP. V.

In what fort of Ground \ and after what manner ^ a Nurfery of

Fines mufi he made.

A Nurfery of vines mufi: not be made either in hungry ground, nor
in that which is oufy ; neverthelefs the land mufi be juicy, and
rather middling than fat, altho’ all authors almoft have deftinated the
richeft and fruitfulleft place for this purpofe, which I don’t at all think
is for the Hulbandman’s advantage j for the ftems being fet in a ftrong
ground, tho’ they quickly ftrike root, and (hoot up, yet, when they are
become quickfets, if they be tranfplanted into a worfe foil, they (brink
and wither, and cannot grow up to their full ftature j for it is the part
of a prudent Hulbandman to tranfplant rather from a worfe to a better,
than from a better to a worfe foil : for which reafon, in the choice of
a place, ?)iediocrity is moft approved, becaufe it is placed in the confines
of, or in the middle between, good and bad ; for whether neceflity fhall
afterwards require us to commit thefe plants, when they are fit to be
removed, to a hungry foil, they will not feel any great difference when
they are tranfplanted from indifferent ground to that which is poor ;
or whether it be a richer land, which is to be planted therewith, they
will improve and grow up much fafier with plenty and abundance of
nourijhment.

Moreover, it is not at all for our interefi, or agreeable to reafon, to
make a nurfery of vines in a very thin poor foil, becaufe the greater part
of the (hoots or cuttings perifhes, and what remains becomes (lowly fit
for tranfplanting: therefore a middling and moderately dry land is fitted
for a nurfery of vines ; and it ought firft to be broken up and l'ubdued
with the double-hoe or trenching-fpade, which is the depth of the pafti-

nation.

r. s/L Of HUSBANDRY. 125

nation, when the ground is turned up to two feet and an half (i). Then,
having left fpaces of three feet, by which the plants may be cultivated,
you muft plant fix hundred fhoots or cuttings in each row, confiding of
two hundred and forty feet. This number makes up all together twenty-
four thoufand plants upon the whole jugerum. But the careful examin¬
ation and choice of the fhoots or cuttings precedes this care ; for, as I
have now often told you, it is the foundation, as it were, of the fore-
faid affair, to fet the mod approved kind of them.

CHAP. VI.

What Sort of Shoot or Cutting mufi he chofen , and from what
Parts of the Vine it muft be gathered,

BUT the choice mud be made with a twofold regard j for it is
not enough, that the mother, from which the plants are fought,
be fruitful ; but greater fubtilty of reafon mud be ufed, that they may
be taken from thofe parts of her body, which are both genital, and the
mod fertil : for a vine, whofe offspring we are defirous to fet apart for
bearing fruit, ought not to be edeemed for this reafon only, becaufe it
produces very many cluders of grapes j for this may happen from the
vadnefs of its trunk, and the great number of its fruit-bearing bran¬
ches ( 1 ) : neverthelefs I would not call that a fertile vine, where fingle
cluders are feen upon each fpray or twig, but if, upon every young
twig of the prefent year, a greater number of bunches hangs down ; if,
from each eye upon its very many firm branches, it germinates with
fruit ; if, ladly, it puts forth from its hard part alfo a twig with fome
duders upon it j if alfo it is pregnant with the fruit of the nephews,

(1) Bipalium-) a tool they made ufe of for trenching ground. Pliny calls it bidens ternos
pedes bipalio alto , which muft fignify, that the iron part of it was 3 feet deep. Father
Hardouin fays, that bipalium was the iron part of the bidetis , wherewith the earth was dig¬
ged. Columella , I reckon, means a bipalium of 2 feer, or 25. The firft was called bipalium
von altum j the fecond bipalium altum , which may lignify a trenching-fpade or mattock 2
or 2? feet deep.

(1) Palmites are the young branches or fprays of vines, which flioot forth from the vine,
like fingers from the hand ; and, as has been already Paid, they are called palmites , from
their refembling the human hand. There are two forts of them, one which giows out of
the firm hard wood of the vine, and, for the moft part, bears only leaves the firft year,
and is called pampinarius ; the other is that which fprings out of a branch of one year old,
and, becaufe it prefently brings forth fruit, is called fruttuarius.

or

126 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book .III.

or fecondary fhoots (2). This vine, without doubt, being fruitful, ought
to be deftinated for fhoots to be gathered from it.

But a malleolus (3) or mallet-Jhoot is a young vine-branch or tendril
growing out of a rod of the former year, taking its furname from its
likenefs to the thing by which it is called, becaufe, in that part which
is cut off from the old branch, it is prominent on each fide, and has the
appearance of, or refembles a mallet. We are of opinion, that this ffiould
be gathered from the fruitfullefl Item every time the vineyards are
pruned, and be carefully covered over with earth in a place moderately
moiit, but not oufy, leaving three or four eyes flanding out above¬
ground ; provided neverthelefs, that this be always a principal point with
us, to examine and take due care, that the vine, from which it is taken,
be not liable to uncertainty, with refpedt to the event of its bloffom j
that its berry does not with difficulty grow big 3 that it neither brings
early ripe fruit, nor that which is too late in coming to maturity j for
the former is infefled by the fowls of the air, and the latter by ftormy
weather.

Moreover, we cannot have any certain proof of fuch a kind of vine
by one vintage ; for even a vine that is naturally unfruitful may, for

(2) Nepotes are twigs or fmall (prays growing out of a fpray or twig of the fame year.
I call them fecondary fhoots. Columella-, lib. iv. cap. 24. fays, ipfos palmites quo! vindemia
prasparamus , claviculis ac nepotibus privandos cenjeoj he ordered the fruit-bearing branches,
which were prepared for the vintage, to be bereaved of their tendrils and nephews, or
fecondary fhoots, and quicquid a tenero procejjit ficut nepos parcius detondetur ; fo that
nepos fignifies a twig, that grows out of a twig of the fame year, which, with refpedt to
the branch of which ic is the iflue, is, as it were, the grandchild j for there is in the
vine what our author calls durum , i. e. the firm hard wood, become fo by time; and there
is the tenerum , which is a twig or young branch, which is, as yet, but foft and fpongy,
and has not had time to harden; fo that, I think, the learned father Hardouin miftakes
Pliny , lib. xvii. cap. 21. when he fays, that nepotes are virgce quas vitis ciet e radicibus aut
caudicis lateribus , rods which the vine putteth forth out of her roots, and the fides of her
trunk ; for thefe, I think, are always called ftolones.

(3) Malleolus. Our writers upon gardening, I fee, retain this word, as they do many
other original words, both Greek and Latin , which may benecefkry perhaps in the names
of trees, plants, &c. where their own language furnifhes them no words; but, when this is
carried too far, very few people can read their books with that pleafure, which otherwife they
would have; fo that it is to be wifhed, that thefe ingenious gentlemen would fometimes make
ufe of circumlocutions in expreffing things, that fo more people might profit by their learned
writings. It would beeafy to draw up a catalogue of words, which theyufe, which frighten
E?iglijh readers, who underftand neither Greek nor Latin. The ingenious Mr. Millar has
indeed, in a great meafure, remedied this inconveniency in his moft ufeful dictionary, by
an alphabetical catalogue of thofe hard words, with their explanations, which, in time,
may make them as familiar to the reader, as other Englifi words; and the learned Dr.
Martin has followed the fame method in his firft leCture of his courfe of botany.

I have tranflared malleolus a mallet-fhoot or cutting, as our author explains it. It is a
cutting taken off the branch, with a bit of the old wood on each fide of it, which makes
it referable a mallet ; but cuttings, which were not of this form, and had nothing of the
old wood adhering to them, notwithftanding ftill retained the old name.

once,

Chap. VII. Of HUSBANDRY. 127

once, bring forth abundantly, either from the great plenty of the year,
or from fome other caufes ; but, when a vine has once eftablithed its
reputation, fo as to be depended upon by the merit, as it were, of the
fervice of a great many years, there is no further doubt to be made of
its fruitfulnefs. Neverthelefs fuch an inquiry is not to be extended above
the term of four years; for that time commonly, wherein the fun re¬
turns to the fame part of the Zodiac through the fame numbers by
which it began its courfe, difcovers the generous qualities of all green
things whatfoever ; which periodical courfe of one thoufand four hun¬
dred and fixty-one whole days they, who apply themfelves to the fludy
of celeftial things, call aVox.aTa<racnv, or the reflitution of things to their
former ftate (4),

CHAP. VII.

How you may know and d if cover the Fruitfulnefs of a Vine.

T3UT i am perfuaded, Publius Silvinus , that you are long ago ta-
citly inquiring what kind this fruitful vine, which we fo accu¬
rately defcribe, may be of, and whether or not one of thofe, which
are not commonly efteemed the moil fertile, is not pointed at ; for
very many people extol and praife the Bituric ; many the Spionian ;
fome the Bafilic ; and fome the Arcelacan or arbour-vine. We alfo do
not unjuftly deprive thefe forts of vines of our commendation ; for they
yield a vaft quantity of wine : but we have refolved to teach you to
plant fuch vineyards, as may bring no lefs plenty of fruit, than thofe
forts already mentioned, and of as precious a tafte as that of the Ami -
neany or, at leaft, not far from that tafte.

I know, that almoft all Hufbandmen differ from us in their opinion
upon this point, which, with refpedt to Aminean vines, is become inve¬
terate, and now has prevailed a long time, as if they laboured under a

(4) 'AToxaraVa<r/< fignifies the reftitution of any thing into its former ftate or form.'
Columella , no doubt, means, by this word, the Julian year of 365 days and fix hours, four
times repeated, which make 1461 days. This word is alfo applied to the annual revolution
or return of a heavenly body to the fame fign ; as for example, from Aries through the
12 figns to Aries again. It is alfo made ule of to fignity whac they call the Diovyfia?.
period-, which is, by multiplying the cycle of the fun of 28 years with the cycle of the'
moon of 19, which produces 532 years; which being finifhed, it was believed, that the
new-moons and full-moons returned to the fame day of the year, and of the week; and
this was called converjio anni magni. But what influence the revolution of four years can
have upon trees, plants, and other green things, our author does not explain.

natural

128 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BooklU.

natural and Innate fterility ; for which reafon, it is more necedary, that
the method, which we have recalled, and brought back from long dif-
ufe and negletft, and which, being condemned by the dothfulnefs, and
no lefs by the imprudence of Huibandmen, and, as it were, kept in
obfcurity by the darknefs of ignorance, has not been fairly reprefented,
nor fet in a true light, fhould be fupported and eftablidred by very many
examples : wherefore it is not improper to turn our thoughts firft to¬
wards thofe things, which feem proper to correct this public error.

CHAP. VIII.

What Quality you are principally to have regard to, in Ground
that you defiinate for Vineyards .

THEREFORE, Publius Sihinus , if, with the eyes of our mind, as
it were, we would more intently contemplate Nature , the former
of all things, we fhould find, that fhe has eftablifhed the like law of
fecundity for every green thing, as for men, and other living creatures j
and that fhe has not beftowed peculiar gifts and advantages upon fome
nations and countries, fo as wholly to deny the like endowments to
others. To fome nations fhe has given the advantage of propagating a
numerous offspring, as to the Egyptians and Africansi with whom it
is a very common and ordinary thing almoft every year to have two
children at a birth ; and of Italian extraction alfo, fhe has been pleafed
to endow with exceeding great fruitfulnefs fome Albanian ladies of the
Curiatian family (i), who were mothers of three children at a birth.
She has graced Germany with armies of exceeding tall men ; but has
not wholly deprived other nations of men of excellent flature ; for both
Marcus Tullius Cicero is a witnefs, that Ncevius Pollio (2), a Roman
citizen, was a foot taller than the tailed: man whatfoever, and lately
we ourfelves might have feen, in the apparatus for the pompous cele¬
bration of the Circenfia ?i games, a man of the JewiJh nation, who was
taller than the tailed: German .

(1) Alb a?! as Curiatice familite. Dionyjius Halicarnajfeus gives an account of two daugh¬
ters of an Albanian gentleman being married, one into the family of the Curiatii of Albano,
the other into the family of the Horatii at Rome., and that they both had three children at
one birth. The Egyptiajis , Pliny fays, are alfo thus fruitful, which he attributes to their
drinking of the water of the Nile, which he calls fetifer Nilus ; of which Solinus fays, cap. 1.
that it not only makes the land fruitful, but alfo the woman’s womb.

(2) Navius Pollio. Tally wrote a book de admirandis , which Pliny mentions in his
thirty-firll book of natural hi (lory. It is probable he mentioned this giant in that book.

I pafs

i

Chap. VIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 129

I pafs now to cattle: Mevania { 3) is famous and remarkable for herds
of tall cattle, and Liguria (4) forfmallj but, in Mevania , fometimes
there is feen a low ox, and in Liguria a bull of an eminent ftature.
Lidia is reported to be wonderful for the vaft bulk of its wild beads ;
neverthelefs who will deny, that, in this land, there are bred terrible
beads of equal hugenefs ? fince we may obferve, that there are elephants
brought forth within our walls.

I return to the fruits of the earth of feveral kinds : they fay, that
Myfia (y) and Libya abound in large crops of corn j nor are the lands of
Apulia and Campania (6) inferior to them in plentiful crops j that Tmo -
his (7) and Corycus (8) are reckoned famous for the faffron-dower, and
Pfudcea and Arabia for their precious odours. But neither is our qty
deditute of the forefaid dems, forafmuch as we fee at one time caffia
putting forth its leaves, and thriving in many parts of the town j at
another time the frankincenfe-plant, and the gardens blodoming with
myrrh and faffron. Certainly, by thele examples, we are given to
underdand, that Italy is mod obfequious to the indudry of mortals, it
having learned to bear whatever grows in any other part almod of the
whole earth, when Hufbandmen have applied due diligence and care:
for which reafon we are in lefs doubt about that fruit, which, being, as
it were, originally a native of the country, is natural, familiar, and pe¬
culiarly adapted to this foil ; for there is no doubt, but the vines of the
MaJJican, Surrentinian , Albanian , and Ccecuban lands are, for the
noblenefs of their wine, the chief and the mod: excellent of all thofe
that the earth fudains.

(-5) Mevania-, now called Bevagna , a city in Umbria in Italy. It was the country of
Propertius the poet, who celebrates the tauriferi campi Mevania:.

(4) Liguria comprehended all that country now called La Riviera di Genoa , which
extends a great many miles upon that part of the Mediterranean fea called Mare Ligujli-
cum. It comprehended alfo a great part of Gallia Cifalpina , between the Apennines ro the
fou'h and eaft, the Cottian Alps to the weft, and the'river Po to the north, comprehending
Montferrat, a great part of Piedmont , and a part of the duchy of Milan.

(5) Myfia , a country of the Lejfer Afa, now called Nato/ia, fubjedt to the Turks.

(6) Campania, a moft beautiful and fruitful country in the kingdom of Naples , now
called Terra di Lavoro.

Apulia , now called Puglia, a province in the kingdom of Naples.

(7) Tmolus, a mountain in Phrygia in Lejjer Afa, upon the confines of Lydia, famous
for faffron, of which both Virgil and Ovid make mention.

(8) Corycus , a city of Cilicia, by fome called Corcur and Curcho ; as alfo a mountain in
that country famous for faffron. Some fay, that the faffron has its name from the moun¬
tain ; others from the city. Ic is much celebrated by Diojcorides, Galen , Pliny , and others.

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

130

C H A P. IX.

How you may male Am mean Vines fruitful.

IN thefe perhaps fruitfulnefs is wanting; but this may be promoted
by the induftry of him that cultivates them : for if, as I faid a little
before, Nature , the mod: bountiful parent of all things, has enriched
every particular nation and country with peculiar gifts, yet fo as not
wholly to deprive others of the like endowments, why fhould we doubt,
that die has obferved the forefaid law alfo in vines ? That altho’ die has
thought fit, that fome kind of them diould be particularly fruitful
above all others, as the Bituric and the Bafilic , yet die has not made
the Aminean kind fo barren, that, of many thoufands of them, there
diould not be found a very few fruitful ones, as thefe Albanian lifters
among the Italian ladies.

But as this is very likely, fo alfo experience has taught us, that it 13
true ; forafmuch as in the Ardeatine land (1), which we ourfelves have
had in our poftedion for thefe many years, as alfo in the Carfeolian (2)
and Albanian lands, we have had Aminean vines of this character; very
few indeed, but fo fertile, that, upon a frame, each of them yielded
three urns (3) ; and, in arbours, they amounted to ten amphora of wine
each (4). Nor ought this fruitfulnefs in Aminean vines to feem incre¬
dible ; for how could Terentius Varro , and, before his time, Marcus
Cato , affirm, that each jugerum of vineyards yielded to the antient
Hufbandmen dx hundred urns of wine, if Aminean vines were defi¬
cient in fruitfulnefs, they being, for the mod: part, the only vines,
which the antients were acquainted with ? unlefs we think, that the
vines which they cultivated were of the Bituric or Bafilic kind, which,
being lately brought from very diftant countries, are juft now come to
our knowledge ; whereas, at this prefent time, we reckon the Aminean
vineyards to be the 1110ft antient.

(1) Ardea, formerly a famous town of Latium, between O flia and Antium, nowintirely
ruinous. It was more antient than Rome , and the metropolis of the Rutili.

(2) Carjeoli and Carfeola, a colony and town in Latium , near to the Lac us Fucinus in
the Pope’s dominions. It was antiently a town of the now called Arfoli,

(3) Three urns, i. e. 10 gallons 6 pints.

(4) Ten amphora, i. e. 71 gallons 3 pints. This Teems to be too great a quantity; for
it is not probable, that a vine’s growing in the form of an arbour, and its branches ex¬
panded, and extended to a great length, fiiould make it fo much more fruitful than that
which grows upon the jugum or frame ; fo that it is probable, as the learned Gefsierus fays,
that there is an error in the text; and that it was, at firft, fenas or biuasi and not denas, as
we have it now. Errors, in numbers, eafil^.creep into books.

If

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. i3i

If any man therefore would, for feveral vintages, obferve and mark
fuch Aminean vines, as I told you I had in my pofleftion a little while
ago, that, from them, he might chufe the moft fertil cuttings, he might
raife vineyards equally generous and abundant in fruit ; for there is no
manner of doubt, but it was the will and pleafure of Nature itfelf, that
the offspring fhould be like to the mother. Hence it is, that the fhep-
herd alfo, in the bucolics , fays (5),

‘ I’ve known the puppy, and the wanton kid,

4 Each like its dam grow up.’

And hence it is, that they, who are fond of contending for themaftery
in the facred games, keep, with great diligence and care, the breed of
the fwifteft horfes, and conceive hopes of future victories from the off-
fpring, which has been propagated of a generous ifud. Let us alfo, for
the like reafon as they in chufing the breed of the Olyjnpian mares,
found all our hopes of future vintages in chufing the feeds of the moft:
fruitful Aminean vines.

Nor is there any reafon, that the tedioufnefs of the time fhould deter
any perfon ; for, whatever delay there is, it is taken up in examining
and making a trial of the (hoot or cyon. But, when once the fruitful-
nefs of the vine has been fufficiently proved, it is very quickly raifed to
a very great number by engraftments. Of this thing, you, Publius Sil-
vinus , can give evidence for us, feeing you will very well remember,
that I completely finiflied the planting of two jugera of vineyard in lefs
than two years time, by making engraftments from one early ripe vine
belonging to you in your Ceretanian eftate. What number of vines
therefore do you think might be planted within the like fpace of time
from the cuttings and fhoots of two jugera , when thefe two jugera
themfelves are the offspring of one vine ?

Wherefore, if, as I faid, we would bellow labour and care, we fhall
eafily, by the forefaid method, form as fruitful vineyards of the Ami¬
nean, as of the Bituric and Bajilic kinds : only it will be of great im¬
portance, that, in tranfplanting the plants, we obferve and keep the like
flate and conftitution of the climate, and alfo the quality, lituation,
and difpofition of the place, and of the vine itfelf ; becaufe, for the
moft part, a cutting or cyon degenerates, if either the lituation, or the
quality of the land, or of the air, be repugnant to it ; or alfo, if it be
brought from a tree, and put upon a frame.

(5) Virg. eel. i. 23.

S 2

Therefore

I32 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book III.

Therefore we muft tranfplant from cold to cold, from hot to the like
date, and from vineyards into vineyards. Neverthelefs an Aminean Hem,
when removed from a cold flate, can better bear that which is hot, than
from a warm fituation, that which is cold ; becaufe every kind of vine,
but efpecially that before-mentioned, is naturally more delighted with
warmth, than with cold.

But the quality of the foil alfo helps very much, that it be removed
from that which is lean or indifferent, to that which is better j for that
which has been accudomed to a fat foil can by no means endure a lean
ground, unlefs you dung it often : and thefe are the precepts we have
given you in general concerning the care that is to be taken in the choice
of mallet-fhoots or cuttings. Now we come to give you particular direc¬
tions, that they may be chofen, not only from the fruitfulled vine, but
alfo from that part of the vine, which bears the greateft plenty of fruit.

CHAP. X.

From what Fart of the Vine the Plants mujl be chofen.

BUT the mod; fertil plants are not, as antient authors have taught
us, the extreme part of it, which they call the head of the vine,
that is, the utmoft, and the mod produced or longed rod of it; for in
this alfo Hufbandmen are deceived : but the caufe of this error is the
fird beautiful appearance and number of the cluders, which, for the
mod part, is feen upon the longed and mod produced branch ; which
thing ought not to deceive us, for it happens not from the natural,
innate fertility of the fruit-bearing branch, but from the conveniency
and advantage of the place, becaufe all the moidure and nourishment,
which the ground difpenfes, paffes quickly through the other parts of
the trunk, till it comes to the lad ; for the whole nourifhment of any
green thing, as if it were a certain foul, is, by its natural fpirit, drawn
to the top, through the marrow of the trunk, as through a iiphon,
which mechanics call a diabetes (i) ; to which place when it is come, it
dops there, and is confumed : and hence it is, that, either in the head

(i) Diabetes is a Greek word, which comes from a Greek verb, which fignifies to pajs
through. It is an incurvated inftrument, or crooked glafs tube, for drawing liquor out of a
veflel, and is fo called from the liquor paffing quickly through it. In alluflon to this, that
difeafe of the body, wherein whatever one drinks does fuddenly flow through the veffds,
and pafs by urine, is called by this name ; becaufe the moifture of the body does not flop
any-where, but paffes from place to place, juft as water does through a flphon.

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 133

of the vine, or in the fhank, next to the roots, are found the firm
wood-branches, that fhoot forth the moll vehemently ; but thofe (hoots,
which are produced out of the hard part of the vine, are approved
by them for two reafons, becaufe they are without any offspring,
or are empty of fruit, and alfo becaufe they are nourifhed by the frefh,
pure, and unmixed juice next to the earth ; and thofe others are rec¬
koned fertil and firm, becaufe they creep forth out of the tender part
of the vine, and whatever nourifhment, as I faid above, comes to them,
is not divided, and difperfed to other parts. The fhoots that fprout out
of the middle of the vine are the leaned:, becaufe the moifture pafies
quickly by them, and is partly intercepted on this fide of them, and
drawn from them on the other : therefore neither the uppermoft or
highed rod, nor the loweft, ought to be reckoned fruitful, altho’ it
may bring forth much fruit ; forafmuch as it is forced to bear much
fruit, by the exceeding fruitfulnefs of the place it grows upon : but
that branch ought to be reckoned fruitful, which, being fituated in the
middle of the vine, even tho’ it be in an inconvenient place, yet does
not fail to bear, but (hews its benignity by a numerous offspring. When
this branch is tranfplanted, it very rarely degenerates, when, from a
worfe date and condition, it paffes to, and obtains a better; for whe¬
ther it be let in padinated ground, or grafted upon a dock, it is fa-
tiated with more plentiful nourifhment than formerly, when it was in
a poor and needy date.

Therefore we will carefully obferve to chufe and gather our plants
from the fore-mentioned places, which Rudies call the fboulder-parts
of the vine, nevertheless fuch as we fhall have obferved to have brought
forth fome fruit before; for, if they be intrrely deditute of fruit, we
are of opinion, that the mod commendable part of the vine will con¬
tribute nothing to the fruitfulnefs of the cutting.

Wherefore the opinion of thofe Hufbandmen is exceeding erroneous,
who believe, that it is of very little moment and importance what num¬
ber of cluders a fpray may have, provided it be gathered from a fruitful
vine, and is not fprung out of the hard dock, which they call' a Jlock -
branch. But this opinion, which has its rife from their ignorance, or
their not knowing the plants that ought to be chofen, does fird make
fuch vineyards as are but indifferently fruitful, and afterwards alfo fucR
as are too barren : for who is it now, that, in fo long a courfe of years,,
has ever given the Hufbandman, when he was gathering his cuttings,
fuch precepts as I have mentioned a little before? yea, who is it, that
does not pick out for this bufinefs the mod imprudent fervant he has,
and one that is not able to do any other thing ? Therefore, from this ,

cudom*.

*34

L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookHI.

cuftotn, fuch as are the moft unfkilful and imprudent, and the mod
infirm alfo, come to undertake a bufinefs the moll neceffary of anyj
for, as I faid before, every fellow that is the mod: ufelefs, and who
cannot endure any other labour, is put to this bufinefs. Morever, this
perfon alfo, if he has any knowledge or fkill to chufe the cuttings, yet,
becaufe of his infirmities, either diffembles or conceals it, or lays it afide,
and does not make ufe of it; and, that he may complete the number,
which the Bailiff has injoined him, manages nothing with due care, does
nothing confcientioufly : and there is only one thing that he has in view,
and propofes to himfelf ; viz. to finifh the talk that has been fet him,
when, notwithflanding that he may both know, and alfo execute what
he knows, this one precept only has he received from his mailers, viz.
that he take care not to pull off and difplant the ffock-fhoot j but all
the reft he may throw into his number of plants.

But we, having at firft followed reafon as our guide, and now alfo
a long time’s experience, make choice of no other plant, nor look upon
any as fruitful, but that which has brought forth fruit in the genital
part of the vine ; for that indeed which has come forth in a thriving
condition, and is grown up, and become ftrong, in a barren place, with¬
out any fruit, makes a deceitful fhew and appearance of fruitfulnefs,
but poffeffes no generative power. Reafon teaches us, that this is un¬
doubtedly true, if fo be that, as in our bodies every member has its
peculiar offices, fo all the parts of fruit-bearing ffems have their proper
offices alfo. We fee, that men have a foul breathed into them, which,
like a Charioteer or a Pilot, conduits anddiredls their members j and they
have fenfes implanted in them, in order to djfcern thofe things, which
are difcernable and found out by feeling, by the tafte, by the notlrils, by
the ears, and by the eyes j that the feet are adapted for walking, the
arms for embracing : and, that our difcourfe may not, in an unufual
manner, wander over all the various viciffitudes and changes of miniftra-
tions our fenfes are employed in, the ears are able to do nothing which
properly belongs to the eyes j nor the eyes what belongs to the ears :
nor indeed is the power of procreation bellowed upon the hands or the
feet j but the Father of the univerfe has covered and hid in the belly,
that which it was his will and pleafure fhould be unknown to men, that
the eternal Former of all things , who is endued with divine reafon,
might, as it were, in certain fecret receffes of the body, hiddenly and in
fecret, mingle thofe facred elements of fpirit with terreflrial principles,
and curioufiy make and fafhion this fpecies of a living and animated
machine. By this law he procreated cattle, young trees, and fprigsj by

Chap. X. Of H U S B A N D R Y. i3S

this law he formed and fafhioned the feveral kinds of vines, for which
this felf-fame mother and parent did firft lay their roots, as certain foun¬
dations upon which they might hand, as it were, upon feet : then, upon
thefe, he placed the trunk, as a certain ftature and fize of body and ha¬
bit : afterwards he diffufed them, or made them to fpread with branches,
as it were with arms ; and then he drew forth their fhoots and twigs,
as it were hands : and upon fome of them he bellowed fruit, and others
he cloathed with leaves only, to protedt and defend their offspring. If
from thele therefore, as I have already faid, wefhall chufe not the very
genital members themfelves, which are pregnant and great with young,
but, as it were, their coverings, and little fhadows for fheltering them,
which are intirely deftitute of fruit, we fhall certainly labour for a
fhadow, and not for a vintage.

What is it therefore that we would be at, may you fay ? Why is a
young branch or fhoot, tho’ fprung, not out of the hard, but out of the
tender part of the vine, condemned neverthelefs by us, if it be deftitute
of offspring, as if it would be barren alfoin time to come ? for juft now
our reafoning inferred, that every part of the body had its peculiar office
affigned to it ; viz. that which is fuitable and agreeable to it ; fo that
the power of fecundity may be inherent in a fhoot alfo, which is fprung
out of an opportune place, tho’ in the mean time it may ceafe from
producing any fruit. I would not deny, that I warmly infilled to argue
from this very thing ; but this I chiefly infill upon, and maintain, that
a branch, tho’ it be fprung out of the fruit-bearing part of the vine,
has by no means the power of fecundity, if it has not itfelf already
brought forth fruit. Nor is this contrary to that opinion; for it is ma-
nifeft, that there are fome men, who cannot procreate, tho’ the number
of all their members be complete and perfect ; fo that it need not feem
incredible, if a rod, which, growing in a genital place, wants fruit, willl
alfo produce no offspring in time to come.

Therefore, that I may return to the ufual way of fpeaking among
Hufbandmen, thofe fhoots or twigs, which produce nothing at all* they
call Eunuchs ; which they would not do, unlefs they fufpedled them
incapable of producing fruit : which very appellation itfelf fuggefted a
reafon to me for not chufing mallet-flioots or cuttings, tho’ fprung out
of an approved or commendable part of the vine, if they had not pro¬
duced any fruit, altho’ I know, that even thefe are not intirely affected
with barrennefs ; for I confefs, that ftock-fhoots alfo, tho’ they have
crept forth out of the hard part of the vine, acquire fecundity during
the following year ; and therefore they are referved and fet apart for

fhort

c

136 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book III.

Short cuts (2), that they may bring forth fruit. Eut we find, that this
kind of fruit is not owing fo much to the Short cut itfelf, as to the
bounty of the mother-vine ; for, becaufe it Sticks to and abides in its
own ftock, which is naturally fertile, and partaking as yet of the ma¬
ternal nourifhment, in conjunction with the other fruitful plants, which
the has brought forth, and being brought up, and nourilhed, as it were,
at its nurfe’s breafts, it learns, by little and little with them, to bring
forth fruit. But that plant, which is forcibly fnatched from its ftock
before its due time, and while under-age, not having attained to that
maturity which nature has determined, and is either fet in the ground,
or ingrafted into a ftock cut for that purpofe, juft like puerile age, which
is indeed neither fit for coition nor conception, it either lofes intirely its
generative power, or certainly diminishes and leffens it.

Wherefore I judge it absolutely neceftary, that, in chufing of plants,
we take care to gather, from the fruitfulleft part of the vine, thofe
fruit-bearing Shoots, which, by bearing plenty of fruit already, promife
fecundity for the time to come : nor let us content ourfelves with fingle
clufters, but let us approve thofe raoft, which, we fee, have the moft
numerous offspring. Shall we not commend that Shepherd, who propa¬
gates an offspring from that mother, which brought forth twins? and
a goat-herd, whopreferves and Sets apart for breeding the young of thofe
cattle, which are commended for bringing three at a birth ? for it is
certainly true, that the offspring will almoft conftantly anfwer to the
fecundity of their parents. And let us follow this very method in vines,
fo much the rather, becaufe we may find by experience, that plants or
feeds, tho’ carefully tried and approved, yet fometimes, from a certain
natural malignity, degenerate ; and this the poet inculcates upon us, as
if we were deaf to the truth, by faying,

4 (3) I’ve feen fome plants, in chufing which, much time
4 And labour were beftow’d, which ne’erthelefs
* Did foon degenerate, unlefs, with care,

4 Man’s Skilful hand did yearly cull the beft :

4 Thus all things quickly, by a fatal doom,

4 Decay, and, backward forc’d, to ruin tend.’

1

(2) Refex , from refecare, to pare or cut, is a young branch or fhoot fprung out of the
hard part of che vine, cue off very fhort, and near to the hard wood, with one or two
eyes left upon it, in order to fhoot up and recruit the vine. I have called it a Jbort cut ,
which exprefTes the thing, tho’ not a term of art perhaps.

(3) Virg.gmg.lib. i. 192.

*0

Which

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 137

Which mutt: be underflood to be faid, not only of the feeds of all forts
of pulfe, but of every thing that is the fubjeCt of agriculture.

If now we have found, by long obfervation, as certainly we have,
that that cutting or mallet-fhoot, which had brought forth four clutters,
did fo degenerate when it was cut off* from the vine, and let in the
earth, that fometimes it brought one, and foinetimes alfo two clutters
lefs than before : but how much do we think thofe will come fhort,
which, upon the mother-vine, have brought two, or oftener one clutter,
when even thofe, which are the moll fertile, often dread tranfplanta-
tion ? Therefore I willingly confefs, that I rather demonftrate the rea-
fonablenefs of this method, than pretend that I am the inventor of it,
left any body fhould think, that our anceftors are unjuftly deprived of
their deferved praife; for there is no doubt but they were of this very
opinion, altho’ we have no account of it in any other writing, except
thel'e verfes of Virgil , which we have quoted : and yet here there may
be only directions given relating to the feeds of pulfe j for why did they
rejeCt either the rod, which fprung out of the hard part of the vine,
or the fmall end or arrow-part (4) cut off* from the fruitful mallet-
fhoot, which they had approved, if they looked upon it as a matter of
no moment or importance, from what place the plants were gathered?
Now, becaufe they did not doubt, but the power of fecundity was in¬
herent in fome particular members, as it were, therefore they very
wifely condemned the fhoot that fprings out of the flock, and the fmall
end, or arrow-part of a fhoot, as ufelefs, and unfit to be fet in the
ground. But, if it be fo, there is not the leafl doubt but they alfo dis¬
approved much more of that young branch, which, tho’ fprung out of
a fruit-bearing part, had not itfelf brought forth any fruit ; for, if they
were of opinion, that the arrow, that is to fay, the uppermoll part of
a cutting or mallet-fhoot ought to be found fault with and rejected,
when the fame was a part of a fruit-bearing fhoot, does not reafon
itfelf declare, how much more they would have difapproved of a rod,
if it were barren, tho’ it fprung out of the befl part of the vine ? unlefs
they did believe, (which is abfurd) that that which had been naught
when growing upon the mother, would become fruitful when it was
tranfplanted, and cut off* from its flock, and deprived of the maternal
nourifhment. Perhaps more has been faid upon thefe things, than the

(4) Sagitta. The pointed, or fliarp taper end, or uppermoft part of a fhoot, by our
author, and others, is called the Arrow ; the reafon of which, our author fays, is

either becaule it has, as it were, mounted, or fprung up, or ftarted out further from its
mother ■, or, becaufe, being fmall, and pointed at the top, it has the refemblance of the
foreiaid weapon. Vide lib. 4. cap. 17.

caufe

T

138 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

caufe of truth required, yet not fo much as the perverfely miftaken and
inveterate opinion of Ruftics made neceftary.

CHAP. XI.

What Qualities you muft have Regard to in that Ground ,
‘which you dejlinate for Vineyards .

NOW I return to what remains of the plan I laid down for my
difcourfe. The bufmefs of paginating the ground follows the
care of chufing the cuttings, if neverthelefs you are firft fully fatisfied
as to the quality of the foil ; for there is no doubt, but this contributes
very much both to the goodnefs and the quantity of the fruit. And, before
we take this into con fi deration, we think, that it is a thing, which has
been long agreed upon, and admits of no difpute, that that land, which
has never been tilled, if we have any fuch, ought rather to be chofen,
than that where there has been corn, or where trees have been planted;
for, as to old vineyards, which have lain long wafte and out of ufe, it
is agreed by all authors, that they are the worft of any, if we would
replant them, becaufe both the lower ground is embarafted and in-
tangled with roots, which are wrought into it like net- work, and has
not as yet loft that poifon, and that carioufnefs of antiquity or old-age,
whereby the earth being blunted and weakened, as it were with cer¬
tain poifons, grows faint and benumbed. For which reafon, wood¬
land ought chiefly to be chofen, which, tho’ it be embaraffed with
nurferies, or plots of fhrubs, and with trees, yet is eafily cleared ; be¬
caufe whatever things grow up naturally of their own accord, do not
ftrike their roots exactly downwards, nor yet very deep in the earth ;
but they fpread and extend themfelves upon its furface, which being
cut with an ax, and extirpated, the little that remains in the lower
ground, may be digged out with fpades or mattocks, and gathered
together, and built up in piles, in order to ferment aaid rot.

If, neverthelefs, you have no rough untilled land, the next to it is
ploughed land, void of trees : but if this alfo be wanting, they defti-
nate for Vineyards land that has trees planted very thin upon it ; or land
where olive-trees have been planted, which have never been matched
with Vines.

The laft fhift of all is, the repairing and reftoring of an old worn-
out decay’d Vineyard ; for, if neceflity forces us to do this, whatever

remainders

Chap. XI. Of HUSBANDRY. 339

remainders of a Vine there may be in it, ought to be rooted out in the
firft place : then all the ground ought to be dunged with dry dung ;
or, if this is not to be had, with the frefhed of another kind ; and lb
to be turned up, and all the roots mod carefully dug up, and laid upon
the furface, and burnt. Then the paginated ground mud be covered,
either with plenty of old dung, becaufe it does not breed weeds, or
with earth brought from the briar-hedges and thickets. But where
the pure lay-lands, which have never been tilled, are free from trees,
before we padinate the ground, we muft confider, whether it be proper
for fhoots and cuttings : and this is very eafily known, by the ftems
that come up of their own accord : nor is there any ground lb long
deditute of numbers of young fprigs, as not to produce fome fhoots or
cuttings, fuch as wild pear-trees and plum-trees, or at lead bramble-
bullies ; for, though thefe are kinds of thorns, neverthelefs they are
wont to rife up drong, and in a thriving condition, and pregnant and
full of fruit. Therefore, if we don’t fee, that they are Ihrivelled and
parched, nor rough and fcabby ; but fmooth, fleek, and fair, tall and
fruitful ; then we fhall underdand, that the ground is naturally proper
for cuttings, or young fhoots.

But this, in general, with refpedt to that foil which is chiefly proper
for Vineyards : but, as I told you before, we muft particularly con¬
fider, if the ground is eafy, and tolerably loofe, which we faid was
commonly called Black Earth ; not becaufe this is the only ground for
Vineyards, but becaufe it is the fitted of any other for that purpofe :
for, what Hufbandman, of tolerable capacity, does not know, that
even the hardeft fand-or gravel-done, or black date, as foon as they
are broken and thrown into a heap upon the furface of the ground, will
rot, open, and grow foft by dormy weather, or frod, and likewife by
the fummer-heats ; and that, during the dimmer, they refrefh and
cool the roots of the Vines exceedingly, and retain their juice ? Which
things are exceeding proper for nourilhing the cutting, or young plant :
and that, for the very fame reafon, loofe gravel, and land that is full
of fmall pebbles, and moveable dones, is approved ; provided, never¬
thelefs, thefe things be mixed with fat mould j for the fame are very
much difapproved in that which is poor and hungry.

The flint-done alfo (according to my opinion) upon which a mode¬
rate quantity of earth is placed, is very friendly to Vineyards j becaufe,
being cold, and very retentive of moidure, it does not differ the roots
to be thirdy, during the rifing of the Dog-dar. j Hyginus, indeed, who
followed Tremellius , ad'erts, that the bottoms of mountains, especially
fuch as receive the earth which is walked down from their tops ; or
even valleys and lands which have been formed, or have had confider-

T z able

1 4o L. J. M. C 0 L U M E L L A Book III.

able additions made to them, by the continual current, or inundations
of rivers, are very proper for Vineyards 5 and I do not difient from
him. Chalky ground is reckoned very good for a Vine j for chalk
by itfelf, which potters make ufe of, and which fome call Potters
Earth , or white Clay, is exceeding unfriendly to it : hungry coarl'e
fand is no lefs hurtful to it ; and, as Julius Atticus fays, whatever
parches and dries up the cutting or fprig j but that foil is either oufy,.
or fait, or bitter allb, or thirfly and exceeding dry.

Neverthelefs, the antients approved of black and reddifh fhining fand,
which is mixed with moift earth : for they faid, that land which is full
of black flates, unlefs you affifted it with dung, makes the Vines poor
and lean. Ruddle alfo, as the fame Atticus fays, is very hurtful to
them, and is very unfavourable to the roots, which have difficulty to
take hold of it. But the fame nourishes the Vine, when it has once
taken hold of it ; but it is more difficult when you work it, becaufe
you cannot dig it either when it is wet, becaufe it is exceeding gluti¬
nous ; nor when it is exceeding dry, becaufe it is ftiff and hard beyond
all meafure.

CHAP. XII.

Of fuch things as Julius Grsecinus delivered to us , concerning

Laitd proper for Vineyards.

BUT that we may not now wander over the feveral forts of land,
which are infinite, it will not be unfeafonable to mention, and
put you in mind of, that written Formula , as it were, of Julius Graci-
nus j to which is annexed the definition or defcription of land proper
for Vineyards. For thus faith this fame Gr acinus , That any land
whatfoever is either hot or cold, moift or dry, thin and rare, or denfe *
light, or heavy j fat, or lean : but that a Vine can neither endure a hot
foil, becaufe it burns it up ; nor a very cold one, becaufe it does not
fuffer the aftonied roots, as it were, benumbed and frozen with the ex-
ceffive cold, to move and extend themfelves j nor can it endure that
which is moift, becaufe when the Vines difclofe and (hew themfelves,
they, by a moderate heat, attrad from the earth a greater quantity of
moifture than is proper for them, which putrefies and rots the plants
that are fet in it. On the other hand, he fays , that too great drinefs deprives
the plants of their natural nouriffiment, and either kills them intirely,
or makes them fcabby, and parches and burns them up : that very

thick

Chap. XII. Of HUSBANDRY. 141

thick and denfe ground does not Tip up the rains, that the wind cannot
eafily blow through it ; and that it is very eafily broken through, and
affords chinks, by which the fun penetrates to the roots of the dems ;
and that the fame alio compreffes and drangles the plants, which are, as
it were, draightened and iliut up within too narrow bounds ; that that
which is rare or thin gives paffage to the fhowers, beyond all meafure,
which pafs into it as through a tunnel ; and that it is intirely dried up
and withered with the fun and wind : that heavy earth can icarcely be
fubdued and brought under by any culture ; and that that which is light
can fcarcely be kept in heart by any : that the fatted and riched ground
labours under a very great difadvantage from its luxuriancy ; and that
which is lean and poor, is didreffed with hunger and fading.

There is need, fays he, of great temperament among fo very dif¬
ferent inequalities, which is all'o very requifite in our own bodies,, the
good health of which conlids in a certain deady regular adjudment,
by weight and meafure, as it were, of hot and cold, moid and dry,
thick and thin. Neverthelefs, fays he, this temperament in the ground
dedinated for Vineyards ought not to be weighed in a perfedly even
balance ; but it ought to lean fomewhat toward the one fide, that fo
the earth may be rather hotter than colder, drier than moider, thinner
than thicker > and if there be any other things like to thefe, to which
he who plants Vineyards may turn his contemplations. All which things
are of greater advantage, when the conditution of the climate alfo con¬
curs with them. And what quarter of the heavens Vineyards ought to
look to, is a very old difpute, Saferna approving mod of the riling of
the fun, next to that the fouth, and then the wed j Tremellius Scrofa
being of opinion, that a foutherly pofition is the bed of any ; Virgil
exprefly rejecting the wed thus :

(1) ‘ Nor let thy Vineyards bend towards the fun,

‘ When fetting. *

Democritus and Mago commending the northern quarter of the heaven,
becaufe they think that Vineyards expofed to it become the mod
fruitful, which neverthelefs may be inferior to others in the goodnefs
of their wine. It feems bed to us to give directions in general, that, in
cold places, Vineyards be expofed to the fouth quarter j and, in warm,
that they be turned to the ead j provided neverthelefs, that they be not
infeded with the fouth and ead winds, as the maritime coads of Bcetica

(j) Vtrg. Georg, lib. 2. 298.

are.

142 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book III.

are. But, if the countries be liable to the forefaid winds, it will be
better to expofe them to the north or weft winds. For, in exceeding
hot provinces, as in Egypt and Numidia , it will be better to expofe
them directly to the north. Having carefully examined and confidered
all thefe things, we fhall then, at length, undertake the bufinefs of pa-
ftinating the ground.

CHAP. XIII.

After what manner the Earth ought to he pajlinated.

BU T the method of doing this mu ft be delivered and defcribed
both to future Hufbandmen of Italian extraction, and alfo to
thole who are born in the Provinces j becaufe, in very diftant and remote
countries, this way of turning up, manuring, and fubduing the earth,
is not at all praCtifed ; but, for the moft part, vines are planted, either
in trenches, or in furrows. Vines are placed in trenches in this man¬
ner : they whofe cuftom it is to fet their vines in trenches, after they
have digged out the earth, and made a hollow for almoft three feet in
length, and two in depth, as much as the breadth of the iron tool
allows, lay the cuttings flat on each fide, along the Aides of the trenches j
and, having bended them, they raife them up at the oppofite ends of
the trenches ; and, allowing them to appear with two eyes above the
ground, they replace the earth, and make all level : this they continue
to do in the fame line, leaving intervals or baulks of the fame number
of feet, till they finilli the row : then leaving a fpace, according as
every one is accuftomed to cultivate his vineyard, either with the plough,
or with the fpade or mattock, they advance and carry on another
row. And if the earth is only turned up by a digger, the leaft diftance
between each row is five feet, and feven the greateft ; but if they turn
it up with oxen and the plough, the leaft diftance is feven feet, and ten
is large enough.

Neverthelefs, fome difpofe and fet every vine at the diftance of ten
feet, in the form of a Quincunx (i), that fo they may till the ground
with tranfverfe and adverfe furrows, in the manner of lay land, or fal¬
low

/x) in Quincunccm. Trees were faid to be planted in form of the Quincunx, when they
were fo placed, as to reprefent the figure ufed among the Romans for the number five, viz.
V. This difpofuion of trees, in a triangular manner, was in great efteem among the Ro¬
ma is ,

Chap. XIII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 143

low ground. This kind of vineyard is not for the advantage of the
Hufbandman, unlefs where, in very rich ground, the vine rifes up to a
great height, and is of a large growth. But they who dread the expences
of paifinating the ground, and yet ftudy in fome meafure to imitate
Pagination, and make trenches, omitting equal fpaces by turns, draw
ftraight furrows, of the breadth of fix feet, and dig them, and make
trenches three feet deep, and fo place the vine or the cutting in due or¬
der, by the fides of the trenches.

Some, with more covetoufnefs, make a furrow two feet and nine
digits deep, and five feet broad j then they leave thrice as much ground
unmoved, and fo dig the following furrow ; which when they have
done throughout the whole place defigned for the vineyards, in the
fides of the furrows they eredt quickfets, or young vine-branches, cut
off from the vine, as frelh as pofhbly they can, planting at the fame time,
among the regular plants, that compofe the row, very many cuttings,
which, after they fhall have taken root, and are grown ftrong, they
may propagate in tranfverfe trenches in the crude ground, which they
before paffed over without moving it, and fo regularly form their vine¬
yards into rows at equal diftances from one another. But thefe different
ways of planting vineyards muff either be admitted or rejected, accord¬
ing to the nature and goodnefs of every country.

Now I propofe to deferibe and teach you the method of Paginating
or Trenching the land. And firft of all, out of every place we fhall
have deftinated for vineyards, whether it be planted with trees for fup-
porting the vines, or be woodland, every fhrub and tree muff be rooted
up, and taken out of the way, that they may be no hindrance after-

mans, and much recommended by their ruftic writers. It is well enough reprefented by
the polition of the cinque upon a die, and are placed in the following manner :

Iff;

*****

******

*****

******

*****

******

As there is frequent mention, in this and the following chapters, of the "Roman foot , it
may be neceflary to tell the reader, that it is computed by Dr. Arbuthnot to amount only

Inch. Dec.

to 1 1,604 j or, which is the fame thing, the Roman foot, compared with the En&lifb foot
by Mr. Greaves , is reckoned to contain 967 of fuch parts as the Enghfo foot contains
1000 ; which is to be underftood of that on the monument of Cojfutius in Rome, which,
for very good reafons, is, by thefe learned gentlemen, reckoned to be the true, antient, Ro¬
man fooc.

wards

X

14+ L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book III.

wards to the digger, and that the ground that is already paginated may
not be prefted down by the weights that lie upon it, and be trodden
down by the going in of thole who carry out the trunks and branches of
the trees. Nor is it, indeed, of fmall importance, that the paftinated
ground be kept very loofe and fufpended, and, if it can be done, pre¬
served from the print of afoot upon it; that fo the ground, being equally
moved, may gendy yield, and give way, to the roots of the young plant,
whatever part they fhall creep and extend them felves to .; and that it
may not by its hardnefs reverberate, and oppole their growth, but re¬
ceive them, as it were, into its tender and nurling bofom, .and give
admittance to the celeftial fhowers, and difpenfe them for nourilhing
the plants, and confpire with all its parts to educate the new offspring.

A champain even place muft be digged two feet and a half deep, and
a riling ground three ; but a hill fomewhat fteeper muft be turned up
at leaft four feet ; becaufe when the ground is drawn down from an
higher part to a lower, there is lcarcely luch a quantity of earth thrown
up to be of fuch a depth as is neceflary in Paftination, unlefs you raile
the bank much higher than you would do upon a plain. Moreover, I
am not pleafed with planting a vine in low valleys lefs than two feet
deep ; for it is better not to plant it, than to fulpend it upon the fur-
face of the ground ; except, neverthelefs, when a fpring, which forms
a marfh, comes in your way (as in the land about Ravenna), and hin¬
ders you from digging deeper than a foot and a half.

But, you, mu ft. at firft begin the forefaid work, not, as moft part of
.Hufbandmen do, at . this prefent time, by deepening the furrow by little
and little, and fo by a fecond and third gradation, to come at length to
the depth you defigned the paftinated ground Ihould be of ; but at the
very firft, having placed your line equally, you muft carry on a conti¬
nued trench, without any break or interruption, with its fides exactly
perpendicular, and place the earth you have moved, in due order be¬
hind your back, and carry it down fo far, till it exa&ly anfwer to the
meafure of the depth given : then the line muft be equally moved
throughout the whole fpace of the gradation ; and you muft fo order
matters, that it be made of the fame breadth at the bottom, as it was
begun at the top.

But there is need of a fkilful and vigilant overfeer of the work, who
may command the bank to be raifed, and the furrow to be emptied,
and the whole fpace of crude ground, that is not yet moved, to be
thrown up, and joined with that which is already thrown out of the
trench, as I dire<fted in the preceding book, when I defcribed the way
of tilling the ground, by giving this caution, that no baulks fhould be

omitted.

Chap. XIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

T45

omitted, or left any-where, nor any hard part of the ground covered or
hid with the uppermoft clods thrown upon it.

But, in order to exadt the doing of this work as it ought to he done,
our anceftors devifed a certain machine, as it were; they contrived and
formed a rule or fquare, or ftrait piece of wood, from the middle of
which a fmall rod jutted out, commenfurate to that depth to which
it was neceifary the furrow fhould be depreffed, reaching from the bot¬
tom to the uppermoft part of the bank. This kind of meafure ruftics call
Ciconia (a Stork) (2) : But this alfo is liable to fraud, becaufe there is
a great difference which way you place it, whether inclining, or perpen¬
dicular. We have therefore added fome parts to this machine, which
may be effectual to put an end to all ftrife and dilpute between con¬
tending parties. For we have joined together, croffwife, in the form of
the Greek letter X, two rules, of fuch a width as the trencher defigns
to make his furrows ; and fo have faftened that antient Ciconia to the
middle part where the rules are joined, that fo, being made, and fixed
exa&ly perpendicular, it might reft upon it, as upon a bafe, to fiipport
it. Then upon the fmall rod, which is in the middle of the tranfverfe
rule, we have planted a carpenters plummet. The inftrument thus
framed, when put down into the trench, puts an end to all difpute
between the mafter and the undertaker of the work, without injury to
either party. For the ftar, which we faid refembled the Greek letter,
does at the fame time meafure the ground of the bottom of the trench,
and likewife exactly try its level ; becaufe, whether it Hopes, or whe¬
ther it is exa&ly upon a level, it is found out by the polition of this
machine : for the plummet that is placed upon the fore-mentioned fmall
rod, ftiews both the one and the other, and does not fuffer the over-
feer of the work to be deceived. The work being thus exadtly mea-
l'ured, and reduced to a level, proceeds always, and is carried on in fuch a
manner, as to bring it to the fimilitude of ground that is fallowed :
and as much fpace is taken up by the line formed by the earth which
is thrown out of the trench, as the faid trench, out of which it is dug,

has

(2) Ciconia , an inftrument contrived for meafuring the depth and width of the trenches,
when they trenched the ground. They called it by this name, probably, becaufe one
part of it reprefented the bill of a ftork. They called a certain machine, wherewith rhey
drew water, by this name alfo, tho’ fometimes authors call it ttrUanonem. Ic is chusdefcribed
by Vegetius dire miltari , lib. 4. 21. Trabes in terram prgalte dejixa, cui infummo Venice
a ia tranfverfa trabes longior, dimenfa medietate connettitur, i. e. a piece of timber fattened
deep in the ground, upon the top of which another tranfverfe piece, longer than it, is joined
with it, and exadtly poifed in the middle. It is called a Swipe Ifdorus fays, that this ma¬
chine was called Ciconia , becaufe it imitates a ftoik ra ling and tailing her bill when flic

U crunks.

146 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookHI.

has length and breadth ; and this way and method of preparing the
ground is moft approved.

>

crunks. The figure of this machine for meafuring the trenches, as it was made at firft,
and aifo with the improvement made by Columella , you have here below. There is in
feme old editions an imperfed: delineation of it ; but whether originally by the author, is
uncertain : but he defcribes it fo exadly, that one cannot miftake it.

« f h, the antient Ciconia.
e f, the tranfverfe rule,
c h3 the fmall rod joined to it.

a i, and b g, the two rules decuffated, or
joined together in the form of the Greek let¬
ter X.

g i, the breadth of the furrow.

e

c h,i

fhS

the depth of the fame.

J

c, the middle part, where the two rules are
;oined and fixed to each other.

d c, the carpenter’s plummet.

g h the rays of the ftar, which equally mea-
fure the bottom of the trench.

CHAP.

Chap. XIV. Of HUSBANDRY.

147

CHAP. XIV.

How many ways a Vine may be planted \ either in Italy, or

in the Provinces .

NOW follows the bufinefs of planting the vine, which is feafonably
fet in the ground, either in the fpring, or in autumn ; better in
the fpring, if the conftitution of the climate be either rainy or cold, or
the land either fat, or a champain and oufy plain : on the other hand,
it is beft to plant it in autumn, if the quality of the air be dry, or hot ;
if it be a poor and dry plain ; or if it be a lean and fteep hill. There
are almoft forty days proper for planting in the fpring, from the 13th
of February till the Equinox ; and in autumn, from the 1 yth of Offo-
ber , to the firft of December.

But there are two different ways of planting, either with the cutting,
or with the quickfet, both which are in ufe with Hufbandmen j and,
in the provinces, they rather make ufe of the cutting ; for they neither
care for, nor apply themfelves to make nurferies j nor are they ac¬
quainted with the way of making quickfets. This way of planting
with cuttings, the moft part of the vine-dreffers in Italy have, with
very good reafon, difapproved and rejetted j becaufe the quickfet is far
preferable to it, and excels it in many qualities. For it is lefs liable to
perifh, inafmuch as by reafon of its firmnefs and foundnefs it more eafily
fupports both heat and cold, and other forts of weather j and then it
grows up, and comes to perfettion fooner ; from which it comes to pafs,
that it is more quickly in a condition to bring forth fruit ; as alfo, there
is no doubt but, being often tranfplanted * (1), neverthelefs, in loofe

and yielding eafy ground, a cutting can be immediately planted in the
room of a quickfet. But that which is thick, clofe, and heavy, does
certainly require a vine.

/

* ( 1) There is a blank here in all the old editions : there feems only to be one or two words
wanting, to fhew the benefit a quickfet receives, by being tranfplanted j but, without th«
adiftance of fome manufeript, 1 cannot fee how they can be fupplied.

U 2

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

CHAP. XV.

T'hat it is better to plant in paginated Ground^ than in
! Trenches or Furrows 7nade in fallow Ground \ or in that
which is newly broken up .

A Vine, therefore, is planted with greateft advantage in paftinated
ground, that has been well cleanfed, harrowed, and levelled, omit¬
ting five feet between the rows, in ground that is lean ; but fix feet
in that which is middling : but in that which is fat, there muff be
fpaces of feven feet allowed, that fo larger intervals may be vacant, all
along which the frequent and prolix firm boughs may be diffufed.

This difpofition and laying out the dimenfions of vineyards in the form
of the Quincunx is performed in a mold expeditious manner : for you
flitch to a line a bit of purple cloth, or any other confpicuous colour,
at the diflance of fo many feet, as you defign the rows of the vines
fhould be diflant from one another ; which line, marked after this
manner, you flretch along the paftinated ground, and hard by each bit
of purple cloth you fallen a reed in the ground, and fo the rows are
diredled and laid out at equal diftances from one another. And, after
this is done, the digger follows, and, leaving fpaces by turns all along
the row, from one reed to another, digs a trench, no lefs than two
feet and a half deep, in fuch places as are level and plain ; in riling
ground, two feet and three fourths of a foot ; but, in fuch places as
are very fleep, even three feet. The trenches being deprefled to this
depth, the quickfets are fet into them in fuch a manner, that every
one of them may be laid flat the contrary way to one another from the
middle of the trench, and their tops eredted juft by the reeds at the
oppofite ends of the trench.

But the firft thing incumbent upon the planter to do is, to remove
his plant carefully out of the nurfery, both found and intire, and tranf-
plant it as frefh as poflible, and, if it can be done, the very moment
when he has a mind to plant it; and then to prune it all over as a veteran
vine, and reduce it to one very ftrong firm-wood branch, and fmooth
its knots and fears; and alfo, if any of its roots have received any injury,
(which he ought, above all things, carefully to avoid, when he takes
them out of the ground) to cut them off ; and then, bending it, to fet
it in fuch a manner, as the roots of two vines may not interweave with
one another. For this may be eafily avoided by regularly placing a

Chap. XV. O/HUSBANDRY, 149

few dones all along the bottom, hard by the different fides of the
trenches, which may not exceed five pounds weight each : thefe, as
Mago informs us, keep off the waters in winter, and the heats in fum-
mer, from the roots of the vines. Virgil is of the fame mind with him,
and directs us thus to defend and fortify the young plants :

* (1) The fpungy pumice-done, and rugged fhells,

‘ Hide with them under ground. ’

And, a little after :

*- - Now fome there are,

*■ Who prefs them down with dones, or with the weight
c Of bulky fhells j thefe, from th’ o’erflowing rains,

‘ A fure defence, and, from the fcorching heat,

* When flaming Dog-dar cleaves the parched ground,
c Which, fpent with third, gapes for refrefliing rain. ’

And the fame Carthaginian author proves, that the hufks of grapes
and grape-dones, mixed with dung, put into the trench with the plants,,
quicken and drengthen them j and that they call forth, and draw out,
their new little roots ; and that this, during the cold and moid winter,
communicates a feafonable warmth to the trenches, and, in fummer,
miniders nourifhment and moidure to the green plants. But, if the
ground, to which you have committed the vine, appears to be poor,
he is of opinion, that fat mould fhould be brought from a greater di¬
dance, and put into the trenches. Whether this be [expedient, or
not, the increafe or yearly produce of the country, the price that the
fruits of it yield, and the wages of labourers, will teach us.

(1) Virg. Georg, lib. 'ii. 333.

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

*5°

CHAP. XVI.

What Meafure or Quantity of paftinated Ground may be,

fujficient for Vineyards (i).

TH E paginated ground is proper for planting, when it is a little
moitl ; neverthelefs, it is better to commit the plant to it when
it is dry, than when it is miry and dirty j and, when the plant is fo
long as to ftand feveral joints above the brim or uppermoft part of the
trench, that part of the top, which riles above the trench, is cut off,
only two eyes of it being left above-ground, and the trench filled up,
by throwing the earth into it. Then, after the paginated ground is
levelled, the cutting mull be planted among the vines that grow in the
rows ; and it will be fufficient to fet it all along one line, in the middle
lpace which is vacant between the vines. For thus both the fhoot
itfelf will grow and gather ftrength the better, and there will be left a
moderate fpaceof free and open ground for drefling the regular plants
as they Hand in their feveral rows. Then, in the fame line wherein
the quickfet lhall occupy and Hand in its own rank, fome cuttings alfo
mulVbe planted, as prefidiaries for the regular vines, out of whofe num¬
ber one may be propagated and brought into the place of a vine that is
-dead. Five cuttings muft be fet upon the fpace of one foot (2), and

, (1) This paragraph is not fo clear and diftin£t as moll others, and great attention is requi-
fite in reading the original, where fome words feenvto be wanting, to make the fenfe com¬
plete. The author fays, that the paftinated ground being laid out into feveral rows, the
quickfets muft be planted upon the faid rows, at fuch and fuch diftances from each other.
The vines, being thus fet in their feveral rows, are called Vites or dinar i<e : between the
feveral rows of regular vines, he directs a certain number of cuttings to be planted, exactly
in the middle between the rows ; and fays, that even in the fame line wherein the quick¬
fets are planted, and occupy their own rank, muft fome cuttings be fet as prefidiaries to
the regular vines, i. e. when the regular vines perifh, thefe may be commodioufly brought
to fupply their places ; this is what is meant by prafidii caufa ; and in other places, they
are called malleoli prafidiarii. Lib. iv. r. 15.

(2) 6 malleoli pangendi funt per fpatium pedis , ififo pes , See. The author, con¬
trary to his ufual method, feems in thefe words to have expreffed his meaning very con-
cifely, leaving it to the reader to find it out from what he had faid before. In the pre¬
ceding chapter he had faid, that in middling land there muft be fix feet between the rows.
Now, in a jugerum of ground there are 240 feet in length, and 120 in breadth : fo there
Wall be 40 intervals lengchwife, and 20 in the breadth ; which, multiplied into one another,
mate 800 intervals, or vacant fpaces. To each interval allow five feet to plant cuttings
up >n, and half a foot diftance from each vine, there will be twenty-five cuttings in every
interval; which, multiplied by 800, make 20000 ; and this is the number of cuttings
■Columella dire&s to plant on each jugerum of paftinated ground.

this

Chap. XVII. Of HUSBANDRY. r5 1

this foot is taken from the very middle of the fpace between the rows,
that they may be equally diftant from the vines on both fides. Julius
Atticus thinks, thatfixteen thoufand cuttings are abundantly fufficient
for this kind of planting. Neverthelefs, we plant more by four thou¬
fand ; becaufe a great part of them perifhes thro’ the negligence of the
vine-dreffers ; and the reft, that thrive, grow thin by the death of the
regular plants, whofe places they are taken to fupply.

CHAP. XVII.

Vfter what Manner , and at what Time , a Vine is to he planted,

THERE has been no very fmall difpute among authors about die
planting of fhoots. Some were of opinion, that the whole rod,
as it was pulled off from the mother, was proper for planting ; and,
having divided it into parts of five, or even fix eyes each, they com¬
mitted the feveral cuttings to the earth : which I don’t at all approve ;
and I rather agree with thofe authors, who denied, that the upper firm-
wood branch is fit for bearing fruit; and only approveed of that part
which is joined with the old fpray. But they intirely rejected the arrow..
Ruftics call the utmoft or laft part of the fhoot, the Arrow, either be¬
caufe it has removed itfelf, and departed to a greater diftance from its
mother, and has, as it were, ftarted or leapt out from her ; or becaufe,
being attenuated and pointed at the top, it bears the refemblance of
the forefaid weapon. Therefore the wifeft Hufbandmen have denied,,
that that part fhould be planted. Neverthelefs, they have not given
us any reafon of their opinion, which they, who had great underftanding
in Hufbandry, could have readily done, it being almoft obvious and ma-
nifeft before their eyes. For every fruitful branch of a vine is exuberant,
or abounds molt in fruit, below the fifth or fixth eye; and in the remain¬
ing part, tho’ exceeding long, it either bears no fruit at all, or fhews-
us feme very fmall clufters. For which reafon, the top of the fhoot
was, by the antients, very juftly blamed for its barrennefs : and they
fo planted the mallet-fhoot, that fome part of the old branch did flick
to the young one. But experience has condemned the planting of it in
this manner. For, whatever part of the old wood was left, did quickly
rot with the moifture, after it was fet and covered with earth, and, by
its own diftemper killed the tender roots that were next to it, and
Scarcely as yet creeping out; and, when this happened, the upper part

1S 2 LvJ. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

of the plant dried up and decayed : afterwards Julius Atticus , and
Cornelius Celfus , the mod: celebrated authors of our age, following the
example and directions of the Saferna s, father and fon, did cut off
whatever remained of the old branch exa&ly by the joint where the
young (hoot grows out of it, and fo fet into the ground the fpray with
its own fmall head.

CHAP. XVIII.

What things one ought to ohferve , who plants a Vine.

BUT Julius Atticus fet the forefaid plant in the earth, with its
head twilled and bended, that it might not fly off from the dibble.
Hulbandmen call the forked iron tool wherewith they fet their plants
Pajlinum (a Dibble) j and hence it was, that old vineyards, which were
digged a fecond time, were faid to be repaginated. For this was the
proper appellation of a vineyard, that was reflored or trenched, and
replanted a fecond time (i). Now, cuftom, unacquainted with anti¬
quity, calls all ground whatfoever, that is moved and prepared for vine¬
yards, Repajlinated. But let us return to what wepropofed.

Julius Atticus’s way of planting, which allows of twifling and
writhing the head of the fhoot, is, in my opinion, intirely wrong ;
and there are more reafons than one for avoiding this pra&ice : firft,
bccaufe there is no item whatfoever, which, being vexed and broken
before it is planted, comes up and thrives better, than that which is fet
in the ground found and intire, without fuffering any injury. More¬
over, whatever thing is put into the earth crooked, bended, and look¬
ing upwards, when at a proper feafon it is taken out of the ground, it
refills the efforts of the digger, as if it were a hook j and, like a crook
fattened in the ground, breaks, before it can be pulled out. For the
wood is brittle in that part which contracted a blemifh when it was

(i) 'Rejfibilis vinea, rejlibi/e vinetutn, is a vineyard trenched a-new, and replanted, or
the vines that were decayed, reftored by cutting them, or laying them in order to recover
them j reffibilif, a rejlituendo , by^the Greeks called 'jakj/aqvik, But reftibilis ager was land
that was Town every year without intermiffion, or at leaft two years immediately follow¬
ing, with bearded or husked whear, which they who let their farms provided againft, be-
caufe it impoverifhed the land : on the contaary, land that refted every other year, in
order to recover its ftrength, was called novalis , a novando , tho’, properly, ager novalis
fignifies land that was never tilled nor cultivated before. And Pliny bimfelf calls land, from
off which old wood was cut, ager novalis.

4

twilled

Chap. XVIII. Of HUSBANDRY. iS3

twifted and bended at the time it was planted. For which reafon it
lofes the greateft part of its roots, which are broken off it.

But, to pafs over thefe inconveniencies, I cannot, indeed, diffemble
that which is exceeding hurtful j for, a little before, when I was
fpeaking of the uppermoft part of the fhoot, which I faid was called
the arrow, I obferved, that the greateft part of the fruit commonly
grows within the fifth and fixth eye, which are next to the old branch.
Therefore he who twifts the fhoot, deftroys this fruitful part j be-
caule both that part which is doubled contains three or four eyes, and
the remaining two or three eyes, that would produce fruit, are intirely
put under-ground, and thofe that are hid under-ground don’t produce
branches, but roots. So it comes to pafs, that what we would have
avoided, in planting nurferies of willows, we put in practice in planting
this kind of cutting, which it is neceffary to make the longer, if we
will plant it twifted. Nor is it to be doubted, but the eyes next to
the top, which are unfruitful, are left in it j from which fprout fprigs
which are either barren, or certainly fuch as bear lefs fruit, which-
Ruftics call Twigs with Jingle clujlers. What ! Is it not of great im¬
portance, that a cutting, which is fet in the ground, fhould quickly
clofe up, and form a fear in that part where it was cut off from its mo¬
ther ? For, if this is not done, too much moifture is drawn thro’ the
open pith of the vine, as it were thro’ a pipe, and the fame makes the
ftock hollow : and hence it is, that ants, and other animals, which con-
fume the legs of vines, are provided with places to lurk in. But this
is what happens to plants that are twifted : for, when their lower parts
are broken, by taking them out of the ground, they are replanted with
their pith open and expofed ; and when the waters, and the forefaid
animals, creep into them, they quickly decay, and grow old. Wherefore
it is the belt way to plant the cutting ftraight, the head of which, when
it is put into the fork of the dibble, is eafily kept faft in the narrow
jaws of the iron tool, and thruft down into the earth j and that cutting
which is fet after this manner, will fooner take root, and grow up : for
it equally fends forth roots from its head, where it was cut off from the
mother ; which, when they grow out of it, form a fear upon it and
befides that, the wound itfelf, looking downwards, does not receive
fo much moifture as that, which, being bowed back, and turned up¬
wards, tranfmits thro’ its pith, as it were thro’ a tunnel, all the u-ain
that fills upon it.

t

X

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

154

CHAP. XIX.

How long the Cutting ought to be.

WHAT length a cutting ought to be of, is not very certain ; for,.

if either it have frequent eyes, it muff be made the lhorter ;
or, if it have them but thin, it muft be made the longer. Neverthe-
lefs, it ought not to be more than a foot, nor lefs than three fourths of
a foot long, left this, being juft upon the furface of the earth, fhould
iuffer by drought in the time of fummer ; and left that, being fet deeper*
fhould, after it is grown up, be with great difficulty pulled out of the
ground. But thefe things with refpedt to the length of a cutting in
even flat ground. But in Hoping hilly grounds, where the earth tum¬
bles down, a cutting may be fet one foot and a palm, or four digits
long. In low-fituated and oufy plains, we plant a cutting alfo with
three eyes, which is a little lefs than nine fingers, but certainly longer
than half a foot. And this is not called a cutting with three gems or
buds, merely becaufe it has three eyes, feeing commonly it is full of
eyes about the wound, where it was cut off from its mother ; but be¬
caufe, befides thefe, of which it has many in the head itlelf, it has
moreover three joints, and the like number of buds.

Of this alfo, above all other things, I would forewarn him that
plants either cuttings or quickfets, viz. that he avoid immoderate wind
and fun, left the plants wither, and dry up ; both which are very eafily
avoided, by throwing a garment, or any fort of thick covering, over
them. Neverthelefs, it is better to choofe for our planting a perfectly
calm day, or at leaft when it only breathes a gentle breeze. For the fun
is eafily kept off by any thing that affords a fhade. But, before we put
an end to our difcourle, we muft fay lomething upon a point we have
not as yet touched upon ; viz. whether we ought to have vines of feve-
ral kinds, and thefe feparate and diftindt from one another under their
feveral forts, or confufed and huddled together, one with another. We
ffiall difcourfe firft of that which we firft propofed.

CHAP.

Chap. XX. Of HUSBANDRY.

*55

CHAP. XX.

How many lands of Vines are to be planted.

THerefore it is the part of a prudent Hufbandman, to plant that
vine which he has chiefly approved j and always to increafe
the number as much as he poffibly can, no other ftem of any other
character intervening. But a provident man ought alfo to fet different
forts. For the year is never fo mild and temperate, as not to annoy,
with fome inconveniency, fome kind of vine or other. For, if either
it be dry, that kind which thrives beft with moifture, is grieved and
difheartened ; or, if it be rainy, then that which delights in drought ;
or, if it be cold and frofly, then that which cannot endure blafting
cold : or, if it be exceeding hot, then that which does not endure heat,
languifhes. But, not to infill now upon a thoufand injuries of different
forts of weather, there is always fomething which may offend and
hurt vineyards. Therefore, if we plant but one kind, when that hap¬
pens which is hurtful to it, we fhall be deprived of the whole vintage.
For he will have no referve, no relief, who has not ffems of divers
forts. But if we make vineyards of various kinds, fome of them will
efcape without receiving injury, which may bring forth fruit. Never-
thelefs, this reafon ought not to force us to feek after many varieties of
vines ; but what we fhall have difcovered to be an excellent kind, let
us make that as numerous as we are able ; then that which is next to
the firfl, and afterwards that which is of the third, and even that
which is of the fourth note alfo. So far let us be content with a' cer¬
tain Quaternion , as it were, of chofen vines. For it is fufficient with
the experiment of four, or, at moft, five, kinds of vines, to wait the
fortune of the vintage.

As to the fecond thing, which I juft now propofed, I am in no
manner of doubt, but vines ought to be forted and difpofed into their
particular places and divifions, according to their kinds ; and diftin-
guilhed by foot-paths, and lines and boundaries, from one quarter to
to another : not that I myfelf have been able to obtain of my own fer-
vants, or intimate friends and acquaintance, that any of them fhould
put this in execution; before I did it myfelf, how much foever they
might approve of the thing. For, of all rural bulinels, this is the moft
difficult, becaufe it requires the greateft diligence both in chufing and
gathering the plants, and difcriminating them, and difcerning the

X 2 fmalleft

iS6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III

fmalleft difference in them ; in which there is need, for the moft part,
of the greateft dexterity, prudence, and difcretion. But ibmetimes
(as that divine author Plato fays) the beauty and comelinefs of the thing
attra&s us, and engages us to purfue even after thofe things, which,
becaufe of the infirmity and frailty of our common mortal nature, we
cannot obtain. This thing, neverthelefs, with no great difficulty, we
fhall be able to accomplifh, if we are not too far advanced in years, and
if our knowledge and eftate correfpond with our defire j altho’ it is
neceffary to perfevere for no finall part of our life, in order to judge of,
difcern the difference, and make a trial for fome years of any confider-
able number. For every time of the year does not allow us to pafs a
judgment upon this matter. For vines which, becaufe of the fimilitude
of their colour, flock, or fhoots, cannot be known from one another, are
very diftindtly known and difcovered by their ripe fruit, and by their
leaves. That any other perfon, befides the mafter of the family, can
life this diligence and application, I will not affirm. For it is aCting.
the part of a carelefs, flothful perfon, to commit it to the care of the
bailiff, or even of the vine-dreffer, feeing very few Huffiandmen have
as yet been able to attain to what is infinitely more eafy, viz. to be
entirely free from ffems that produce black wine, tho’the colour of the
grapes may be difcerned by every the moft ftupid and imprudent perfon
whatfoever.

CHAP. XXI.

Whether the fever al hinds of Vines are to he planted in difinB
Divifons , feparately by the??tfelves .

NEverthelefs, there is one method of effectuating very quickly
what we propofed, which prefents itfelf to me that, if the
vineyards are of an old handing, we fhould engraft each divifion thereof
with grafts that are diftinguifhed and feparated into their feveral kinds,
each fort having its proper divifion allotted to it. Thus I don’t in the
leaft doubt but in a few years we fhall gather many thoufand cuttings
from the vines we fhall have engrafted, and fhall plant in feveral quar¬
ters and divifions the plants thus diftinguifhed from one another.

Moreover, the advantage of doing this thing may engage us upon
many accounts : and that I may begin with thofe of lefs importance,
in the firft place, in every tranfaCtion and employment of life, not

only

Chap. XXI. Of HUSBANDRY. 157

only in Hulbandry, but in every art and fcience whatfoever, a prudent
man is much more delighted with fuch things as are dillinguifhed and
ranged into their feveral kinds, than with fuch as are thrown down, as it
were, at random here-and-there, and confounded in one common heap.

And, in the next place, that if any one having even the greateft
averfion to a rural life, and the rqoft difaffe<fted to Hulbandry, fhould
come into your grounds when planted regularly, and in due feafon, he
may with the greateft pleafure admire the bounty of nature, when on
that fide the Bituric vines richly laden with fruit, and on this fide the
Helvolce , that are equal to thefe, anfwer to one another j when on that
hand the Arcelacan , and on the other the Spionian or BafJica?i vines
meet together, and fuit with one another, whereby the kind and nurfing
earth, rejoicing and glad at the return of the feafon of the year, (as at
a certain everlafting child-bearing) ftretches out her breafts diflended
with new wine.. In the midft of all which, whilft Bacchus cherifhes
the pregnant vine-branches, either of the white or yellow, or of the
bright ruddy kind, or of that which glitters with the brightnefsof the
purple, Autunmus appears every-where in great luftre, loaden with
party-colour’d apples.

But tho’ thefe things yield very great delight j neverthelefs, the ad¬
vantage is greater than the pleafure. For, the more beautiful appear¬
ance any mailer of a family’s eflate makes, the more willingly does he
come down to take a view of it j and what the poet fays of a facred-
Deity Ci),

* Where-e’er the God turn’d his majeflic head, ’

may be truly faid of him j for, where-ever the mailer is frequently
prefent, and calls his eyes, there the fruit abounds to a greater degree.
But I omit what may accidentally happen tc* vines that are not ranked
according to their feveral kinds. I fhall profecute thofe things which
are the moll remarkable.

Stems of a different character neither call their blolfom alike, nor
oome to maturity at the fame time. For which reafon, he who has
not his vineyards made into feveral divilions, according to the feveral
forts of vines, mull of neceffity fuffer one of thefe inconveniencies j
either he mull gather his late fruit with that which is early ripe, which
thing prefently is the caufe of acidity ; or, if he wait till his late fruit,
comes to maturity, he may lofe his early-ripe vintage, which, being .

(1) Vir&-Geor£. lib, ii. 377,

for

i58 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book III.

for the moft part, expofed to the pillage of the fowls of the air, and
haraffed by the winds and rains, decays, and comes to nothing : but,
if he defires to gather the fruit of each kind at different intervals of time,
in the firft place he is under a neceffity of undergoing the hazard of
the grape-gatherers difcretion ; for he cannot affign an overfeer to each
of them, to have his eye upon them, and to give them orders, that the
bitter unripe grapes be not gathered with the ripe. Moreover, of fuch
vines alfo as are come to maturity, they being of a different character,
the tafle of the better is fpoiled by that which is worfe, and, the tafte
of many being confounded into one, the wine will not bear keeping till
it be old : and therefore neceffity forces the Hufbandman prefently to
fell his wine when it is new j whereas, if the felling of it could be de¬
ferred, either for a year, or at leaf: till the fummer, it would make a
great addition to the price of it.

Now this feparating the feveral forts of vines into divifions by them-
felves, has a Mery great conveniency, that the vine-dreffer can more ealily
give to each particular fort the pruning which is moft fuitable to it,
inafmuch as he knows what character the divifion which he is pruning
bears : and this is a thing very difficult to be obferved in vineyards, which
are planted promifcuoufly with vines of different forts j becaufe thegreateft
part of the bufinefs of pruning is done at that time when vines bear no
leaves whereby they can be diftinguiflied. But it is of much import¬
ance, whether the vine-dreffer preferves and fets apart for fruit more
or fewer firm branches, according to the nature of every ftem, or whe¬
ther he encourages and puts a vine forward by leaving long verges upon
it, or curbs and reftrains it by pruning it very near : yea, it is of great
importance alfo what quarter of the heavens every kind of vineyard
looks to. For every fort of vine does not delight and rejoice in a hot
fituation ; nor, on the contrary, in one that is cold : but young vines
have their peculiar property, fo that fome of them thrive mightily
towards the fouth polef becaufe they are deftroyed by extreme cold ;
others of them love the north, becaufe they lofe heart, when they are
expofed to the heat : fome of them rejoice in a middle ftate, in the tem¬
perament of the eaft or weft.

He who feparates the feveral forts into divifions by themfelves, has
a due regard to thefe differences, according to the fituation and pofition
of places. He alfo obtains this further advantage, which is not incon-
fiderable, that thereby he leflens both the labour and expences of the
vintage : for, both fuch grapes as begin to grow ripe, are gathered in
due time, and fuch as are not yet fully ripe, are deferred to another
£ime without any lofs. Nor does the early and late fruit, gathered at

Chap. XXI. Of HUSBANDRY. iS9

the fame time, hurry the vintage, and force him to hire labourers at
any rate. Now this alfo is of very great advantage, to be able to pre-
ferve the true and genuine tafte of each kind, whether it be the BafJi-
can, Biturican , or Spionian , without any mixture, and lay it up fepa-
rately by itfelf : which kinds, when they are thus managed, and put
up into veffels, becaufe nothing of a different nature, which may be
repugnant to them, is intermixed with them, are ennobled by being
kept till they are old(i) ; for, after fifteen years, or a few more, nothing
ignoble can be perceived in their tafte, becaufe almoft all wines what-
foever, after that time, obtain this quality, that they acquire goodnefs
by their oldnefs : wherefore, as we propofed to fhew, the difpofing
and feparating the vines according to their kinds, is of the greateft ad¬
vantage ; which, neverthelefs, if you cannot accomplifh, the next
method to be taken is, that you don’t plant any other vines of a different
character, but fuch as refemble one another in tafte, and yield fruit
which comes to maturity at the fame time. Now (if you have any
care or defire for the apple-kind) you may fet the tops of fig-trees,
pear-trees, and apple-trees, at the ends of the feveral rows, in that part
of the vineyard which lies towards the north, that fo, when they grow
up, they may not overfhadow it ; and, after the fpace of two years is paft,
you may engraft them ; or, if they are of a generous kind, you may
tranfplant them when they are full-grown. Thefe are the things I
had to fay, concerning the planting of vineyards. The chief and prin¬
cipal part is ftill behind, that we give directions concerning cultivating
them, of which we fhall difcourfe at large in the following Book.

(i) Ter potus t amen nobilit ant ttr. It is plain, that either thefe words are erroneous, or
fome word- are wanting ,• and Urfnus has probably hit upon them, at leaft his amendment
makes the fentence uniform and intelligible. Per vctuftatem nobilitantur^ or^ perpetuitate
nobilitantur^ and makes them agreeable to what the author fays, lib. iii. 2. Ad bonitatem ali¬
quant per annos venit j and lib. iv. 20. Non folum ad fpeciem plurimum refer fed ad jirwi-
tatem perpettsitatemque.

L. JUNIUS

[ x6o ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDR Y.

BOOK FOURTH.

CHAP. I.

"That Trenches of two Feet are not deep enough for Vine-plant* \
contrary to the Opinion of Atticus and Celfus.

YOU fay, Publius Silvinus , that, after you bad read over to feve-
ral perfons, that delight in hufbandry, the book which I have
written about planting of vineyards, there were found lome of them,
who, tho’ they commended the reft of my precepts, yet found fault
with two of them, becaufe I had given my opinion for making too deep
trenches for vine-plants, by adding three-fourths of a foot over and
above the depth of two feet, which Celfus and Atticus had determined;
and that I had not done very prudently in aligning one quickfet to
each pole, when thefe fame authors allowed them, with lei's charge,
to cloathe two props next to one another upon the fame row, with two
boughs of the fame vine, divided and parted from each other: both
which objections are founded rather upon an uncertain fuppofition,
than upon any true judgment.

But, (that I may refute firft that which I firft propofed) if v/e will
content ourfelves with a trench of two feet, why are we of fuch an
opinion as to paftinate the ground deeper than two feet, fince we are
' refolved to plant the vine lb fhallow ? Somebody will fay, We do it,
that the lower ground, which lies under the vine, may be foft and
yielding, that it may not, by its hardnefs, ftop and repel the young
fmall roots, that gradually creep into it. Indeed this point may be

i gained

Chap. I. L. J. M. COLUMELLA, &><:. 161

gained alfo, if the ground be moved with the two foot mattock or
lpade, and the plants be depreffed into the trenched ground, which is
fermented, more than two feet and an half ( i ) j for always, upon a plain,
the earth, that is thrown up loofely out of the trench, is more bulky
aud fwelled, than the fame gradation, quantity or extent of crude
earth anfwering to it, that has not been moved : nor indeed do plants,
when they are fet, require a deep bed of earth to be made under them ;
but it is fufficient to put half a foot of loofe earth under the vines when
they are planted, which may receive the gradual growth of the green
plants, as it were, into its hofpitable, and even maternal bofom.

Let us take an inftance of this matter from ground where trees are
planted for fupporting vines, where, when we have digged the trenches,
we lay a very little quantity of duft under the quickfet : therefore the
truer reafon for our paginating the ground deeper is, becaufe in vine¬
yards, where the vines are laid upon frames, they grow up the better,
the deeper the trenches are they are planted in : for, trenches two feet
deep can fcarcely be approved even by Hufbandmen that live in the
provinces, where the vine, being of a low fhiture, is, for the mod;
part, checked, and kept near to the earth ; whereas that, which is defti-
nated for a frame, mud: be edablifhed upon a deeper foundation ; and
if fo be it climbs up higher, it requires more earth, and more adidance ;
and therefore, when they are to be wedded to trees, nobody prepares a
trench lei's than two feet deep for the vines.

But thole principal advantages of fhallow planting, viz. that thofe
plants, which are not wearied by being prelfed down by a great weight
of earth, do both grow up quickly to their full flature, and become
ilrong, and fuch as are gently fufpended become more fruitful, contri¬
bute very little to what the Hufbandman defires and aims at j for both
thefe reafons of Julius Atticus are confuted by the example of the
method of planting vines, in order to couple them with trees, which
makes the vine both ftronger and fruitfuller ; which it would not do, if
the plants differed any injury by being funk deeper into the earth.
What ! does not padinated ground, when it is loofe, and newly thrown

(i) Our author directed vines to be planted in trenches made two feet and an half deep
in trenched ground. To this it was ot jedted, That the vine was fet too deep. Columella
asks, Why we trench the ground fo deep, if we fet the vines fo (hallow, and do not plant
them as deep as we trench ? They who made this objection, and blamed him, anfwered.
That this was done, that the earth below them might be foft, and that the fmall roots
might creep gently into it. Columella anfwers, That this may alfo happen, if the earth be
moved with the two foot fpade, and the plants be fet in trenches more than two feet and
an half deep; becaufe the earth, when trenched, and thrown up to a certain height, does
ferment and (well, lo that theie is place enough for the roots to extend themfelves in.

Y up,

1 6 2 . L. ]. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

. up, fwell as if leaven were put into it ? and then, before any confider-
able time paffes, it is condenfed, and lubfides, and forfakes the roots of
the vines, leaving them fwimming, as it were, upon the furface cf the
ground ? But this does not happen fo readily to our way of planting,
which fets the vine deeper into the earth. As to their faying, That the
plants fuffer by cold, when they are deep in tire ground, this alfo we
don’t deny ; but it is not the depth of two feet and three- fourths of a
foot that can produce this effe<5t, cfpecially confidering, that, as I faid
a little before, notwithftanding vines, which are to be coupled with
trees, are fet deeper in the earth, yet they efcape the forefaid incon-
veniency.

CHAP. IT.

That the Branches of one ^uickfet ought not to cloathe two
Props ; but every fingle Plant mnft have its own Prop
affigned to it.

THAT other pretence, viz, their being of opinion, that two props
are, with lets expence, married to the young fhoots of one plant,
is falfe ; for, if either the head itfelf fhould die, two props are reduced
to a flate of widowhood, and prefently as many quicklets muff be fub-
flituted in the room of that which is dead, which, by their number,
bring a further charge and burden upon the Hufbandman ; or, fuppofe
it lives, and, as it often happens, fhould either turn out to be of the
black kind, or to be not very fruitful, then the fruit fails, or is naught,
not in one prop only, but in more alfo. And even they who have more
jkill than ordinary in Hufbandry, think, that a vine, tho’ it be of the
generous kind, when it is divided in this manner into two props, will
become lefs fruitful, becaufe the roots will interweave under ground,
and form a hurdle ; and therefore the felf-fame Atticus directs us to
propagate and renew old vineyards rather by layers, than by laying the
whole vines flat in the ground; becaufe layers eafily ftrike root prefently,
fo that each vine leans upon, and is, as it were, fupported by, its own
foundation : but that, which has its whole body laid flat, when it has,
with its roots running crofs every way, wrought the lower part of the
ground like a lettice or net-work, forms a hurdle, and it is vexed and
tormented by its many roots being watled into one another ; and fails
and decays in the very fame manner as if it had been overburdened with

branches:

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 163

branches : wherefore, on all accounts, I would rather chufe to run the
hazard of putting two plants into the earth, than one only; and not to
purfue that as an advantage, which, every way confidered, may bring
a much greater lofs. But now the argument of the preceding book calls
upon us to perform what we
book with.

promifed we would begin the following

CHAP. III.

7 *hat a Vineyard \ newly planted , will fpeedily decay and perijlj ,
if it is not fupported by great and ajjiduous Culture .

IN all expen five undertakings whatfoever, as Grcecinu r fays, mod:

men begin new works with greater courage and refolution, than
they maintain and fupport them with, after they have finilhed them ;
for fome men, as he fays, build houles from the very foundation, and,
after they have finilhed the building, don’t provide proper furniture for
them. Some are exceedingly aCtive in building of lhips, and, after
they have built them, they neither rig nor man them as they ought to
do. Some men are conftantly employed in buying of cattle, others in
purchaling Haves ; but they are under no manner of concern about
keeping and preferving them. Many alfo, by their levity, undo and
deitroy the favours they have beftowed upon their friends. And, that
we may not, Silvinus , wonder at thefe things, there are fome men,
who, with great covetoufnefs and parfimony, educate their children,
which, by marriage, prayers, and vows, they earned ly fought for ; nor
do they cultivate either their mind, or theirbody, with any kind of difci-
pline, exercife, or any improvement whatfoever.

What is to be inferred from thefe things? It is this, that, for the
mod part, Hufbandmen alfo are guilty of the fame kind of fault, who,
upon various pretences, abandon vineyards, which they have beautifully
planted, before ever they grow up to any perfection. Some avoid a
yearly expence, and think, that this is the fil’d: and the fured income,
to be at no expences at all; as if they were under an abfolute neceffity
to make vineyards, which they might prefently, through covetoufnefs,
throw up and abandon. Some think it a fine thing to have rather fpa-
cious than well-cultivated vineyards in their pofleffion. I have even
known many who are fully perfuaded, that land ought dill to be culti¬
vated, whether it be by good or bad methods.

Y 2

But

164 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

But my opinion is, that as no kind of land whatfoever can be fruitful,
unlefs it be diligently, carefully, and {kilfully manured, fo more efpe-
cially vineyards. For a vine is a delicate, tender, and weak thing,
and can by no means bear with hard ufage ; and, for the mod part, it
is confumed by too much labour, and bearing too great plenty of fruit;
and, if you don’t refrain it within due bounds, it perifhes by its own
fruitfulnefs. But when it has, in fome meafure, ftrengthened and hard¬
ened itfelf, and attained, as it were, to the ftrength of youth-hood, it can
bear up under negledt. But a young vineyard, while it is growing up,
unlefs it receive all due care and attendance, is reduced into the pooreft
and moft ftarving condition, and pines and waftes away in fuch a man¬
ner, that it can never afterwards, by any expences whatfoever, be
recovered and reftored. Therefore the foundations, as it were, muff
be laid with the greateft care, and from the firft day of planting it,
it mult be formed with the fame care as the members of infants are ;
which unlefs we do, all our expences will be laid out to no purpofe ;
nor can the proper leafon of any thing be recalled, when once we let
it pafs. Believe me, Silvinus , upon my own experience, that a vine¬
yard well planted, and of a good kind, and under the care of a good
Hufbandman, did never fail to requite, with ufury, all the expences
and pains bellowed upon it.

And this the fame Greecinus makes clear to us, not only by reafon,
but by an example alfo, in that book which he wrote of vineyards ;
where he tells, that he ufed frequently to hear from his own father,
that one Pavidius Veterenfisy his own neighbour, had two daughters,
and a piece of land planted with vines ; of which he gave a third part
as a portion to his daughter when fhe married ; and, this notwithftand-
ing, he ufed to gather an equal quantity of fruit out of the two thirds of
the fame land ; and that afterwards he gave his fecond daughter in mar¬
riage, with the half of the land that remained ; nor did he thereby fuf-
fer any diminution of his former income. What inference does he draw
from this ? It mu ft certainly be this, that that third part of his farm
was afterwards better cultivated, than the whole of it had been for¬
merly.

G H A P.

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY.

CHAP. IV.

*That the Vine ought to he laid flat in the T nnch ; and, after
bending it back from the Bottom of the fame, and raifing it
up flraight , it ought to be applied to a Reed .

WHerefore, Publius Silvinus , let us plant vineyards with great
courage and refolution, and cultivate them with greater appli¬
cation 3 of the planting of which, that is the mod commodious method
which we have delivered in the preceding book 3 viz. that a trench
being made in the paginated ground, the vine be laid fiat from the
middle part of the furrow almoft, and that the firm- woody part of it
be raifed up flraight from the bottom, and applied to a reed. For this,
efpecially, muft be obferved, that the trench be not like a conduit, or
trough j but that the fronts, or ends of it, be raifed, as it were, exactly
perpendicular, and with diltindt regular angles. For a vine that is laid
down flat, and then fet in a leaning pofture, in a trough, as it were, is
afterwards liable to be wounded when it is ablaqueated : for, while the
digger is intent upon digging, flrengthening, and raifing the circum¬
ference of the ablaqueation, for the moft part, he wounds the vine that
grows obliquely, and fometimes cuts it quite thro’.

Therefore we muft remember to raife the fprig flraight up from the
bottom of the trench, and apply it to its prop, and fo bring it to the
uppermoft part or top of it. Then we are to proceed in the other
things as we directed in the preceding book : and then, after leaving
two eyes handing above ground, to level the trench. Then, having
planted cuttings between the rows, we muft, by frequently digging it,
loofen the paginated ground, and reduce it into duft. For thus the
cuttings, quickfets, and other plants which we have fet in it, will take
root, thrive, and grow ftrong, if the foft and tender ground convey
moiflure to them, and no weeds creep in among them, nor the hard-
nefs of the ground prefs and fqueeze the plants while they are young
and tender, as if they were bound faft with fetters.

C H A P.

i66

L. T. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

(v*

C H A P. V.

After the Vines are planted. , we muft dig the ground every
Month , and take care , that TV t zeds dotit fprmg up in it \
and the ^ uickfets muft be reduced to one Jingle Branch of
Firm-wood.

: %

BUT, to confefs the truth, the number of times that the ground
ought to be turned up with hoes, is not to be determined, feeing it
is agreed, that the oftener it is digged, the more benefit it will receive.
But, becaufe it is proper to fet due bounds to «xpences, moft people
think it fufticient to dig new vineyards every thirtieth day from the firft
of March to the firft of October ; and to extirpate all forts of herbs,
efpecially grafs, which, unlefs they be picked out by hand, and thrown
upon the furface of the earth, if the leaft part of them be covered with
earth, they revive, and fo burn up the vine-plants, that they become
fcabby, fhrivelled, and rufty.

CHAR VI.

! That fuperjluous Leaves and Twigs ought to be cut off from

FJuickfets and Cuttings.

Moreover, whether we have planted our vineyards with cuttings,
or with quickfets, it is beft to form them in fuch a manner
from the beginning, that all fuperfluities may be plucked oft them, by
frequent pampination ; and that we fuffer them not to communicate
their ftrength, and all their nourifhment, to more than one firm-wood
branch. Neverthelefs, at firft, two young branches are fet apart for
growth, that one of them may be for a referve, if, peradventure, the
other fhould decay and fail. Then when the rods are a little hardened,
all that are of an inferior quality are pulled off : and that thofe which
are left may not be fhaken off by ftormy winds, it will be proper to
follow them, as they grow up, with a loft, flack band, till they take
faft hold of their props with their tendrils, as it were with hands.

4

But,

Chap. VII. O/HUSBANDRY. 167

But, if want of labourers hinder us to bellow fo much labour upon
the cutting, which, we are of opinion, ought itfelf to be freed from all
its luxuriant twigs and leaves ; yet, certainly, it ought to be done to
vines that are regularly planted in rows, that they may not be ema¬
ciated by too many rods upon them, unlefs we are making a provifion
of layers for the time to come, in order to propagate the vine : but
that they may minifter nourifhment only to one firm-wood branch
each, whofe growth we ought to encourage, by applying a longer prop
to them, by which they may creep up to fuch a height, as to mount
above the frame you make for the following year, and be bended, in
order to bear fruit. When they are grown up to this height, their
tops mull be broken, that fo they may rather grow in thicknefs and
flrength, than be attenuated, by fhooting out into a fuperfluous length.

Neverthelefs, we will pull off all the fuperfluous leaves and twigs
from this very branch, which we fet apart for firm-wood, as far as
three feet and a half from the bottom, and we will often pull off all
the nephews, or fecondary fhoots, that fpring out of it within that fpace.
Then, whatever fhall fprout out of it above that, mull be left un¬
touched : for it is more proper, that the upper part be lopped off the
next autumn with the pruning-knife, than be pampinated in the fum-
mer-time ; becaufe from that place from whence you have taken away
the nephew, or fecondary twig, it prefently pours forth another ; and,
after this is fprung out, there is no eye left in the firm branch itfelf,
which may fprout out with fruit the following year.

CHAP. VII.

'That then is the due Seafon for CP ampinating, when the Twigs
can be Jlruck off with the Finger.

BUT that is the proper feafon for cutting off fuperfluous twigs and
leaves, when the young ihoots are fo tender, that they may be
ftruck off with a flight touch of the finger ; for, if they are hardened
to a greater degree, they mud either be pulled off with greater effort,
or lopped with the pruning-knife, both which are to be avoided ; the
one becaufe it tears the mother (if you endeavour to pull it off by force) j
and the other, becaufe it wounds her, which is very hurtful tobedone
in a green ftem, as yet not grown up to maturity. For the gaih does
not flop exa&ly in the very place where the edge of the knife made

168 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book IV.

the imprefilon, and left its mark ; but, in the fummer heats, a wound
deeply imprefled with the knife, fpreads to a greater breadth, and wi¬
thers, and dries up, fo that it kills no fmall part of the mother’s body
itfelf ; and therefore, if it be abfolutely neceflary to apply the knife to
voting branches which are already grown hard, they muft be cut off at a
little didance from the mother, and left as flumps or fhort-cut branches,
which may receive the injury of the heat, fo far as the place where the
young twigs fprout out of her fide ; for the violence of the heat does
not creep further.

The fame method mud be obferved in pulling the fuperfluous leaves
and twigs off the cuttings, and in humouring and abiding the firm-wood
to grow out in length, if we have a mind to ufe it when it is one year
old, which I have often done. But if we are certainly refolved to cut
it, that we may ufe it rather when it is two years old, after you have
reduced it to one young branch, and the cutting itfelf exceeds a foot in
length, it will be proper to lop off the top of it, that it may grow more
firm towards the neck, and become the dronger. And this is the fird
culture of plants, after they are fet.

CHAP. VIII.

’That a Vineyard ?nufi he ablaqueated in the Autumn .

THEN the time following (as Celfus and Atticus , whom our age has
mod approved, with relpedt to Hufbandry, have declared) requires
a more extend ve care. For, after the fifteenth of October , before the colds
come upon us, the vine mud be ablaqueated ( i ) j which work lays open
and fhews the hidden fmall roots, which it put forth lad fummer,
and the prudent Hufbandrnan cuts them off with the knife. For, if

(i) Ablaqueatio , abJaqueare. This original word is retained by fome, and if it was com¬
monly underftood, would be more commodious than a long circumlocution. It lignifies,
to dig round the root of a vine, or any other tree, in order to lay their roots bare, and
expofe them to the air and wind, and with the earth to make, all round the vine, a kind of
repofitory, or bafon, for the water ; and to take away the uppermoft fuperfluous roots,
and thereby the earth is provoked to imbibe the fun and thefhowers. It contributes very
much to their growth, and is otherwife of very great benefit to them ,• fo that theoftener
the tree is ablaqueated, the better does it thrive, if the nature of the place, and other circnm-
ftances, permit. Authors do not agree about the Etymology of the word : the molt pro¬
bable opinion is, that it is formed from lacus, the pool, or pond, made round the tree, by
digging out the earth, and difcovering the roots.

he

Chap. VIII. O/HUSBANDRY. 169

he fuffer them to grow flrong, the roots that lie lower will decay •
and the event is, that the vine flretches out her roots upon the furface
of the ground, which are both infefled with the cold, and fcorched to
a greater degree with the heats, and fo force their mother to fuffer a
vehement thirft at the riling of the Dog-flar. Wherefore, when you
have ablaqueated the vine, whatever has fprouted out of it within a foot
and an half muff be cut away.

But the method of amputation in this is not the fame as was directed
with the upper part of the vine : for the wound mull not be fmoothed,
and the knife mult by no means be applied to the mother herfelf j be-
caufe if you cut off the root hard by the flock, either more roots will
fpring out of the fear, or the winter rain, which Magnates and forms
a pool in the fmall hollows that are made round the tree, when it is
ablaqueated, will, by its freezing in the middle of winter, chill and gall
the new wounds, and penetrate to the very pith. To prevent this, it
will be proper to keep at thediflance of about one finger’s-breadth from
the trunk, and fo cut away all the fmall roots ; which, being taken
away after this manner, fprout out no more, and defend the trunk
from further injury.

This work being finifhed, if the winter be mild in that region, the
vine mull be left open ; but, if a harder winter forbids to do this, the
forefaid cavities, or little ponds, mull be filled up, and levelled, before
the thirteenth of December. But alfo, if you have any fufpicion, that the
colds of that country will be exceffive, before you cover the vine with
earth, you mufl lay fome quantity of dung to its roots, or, if it be more
convenient, pigeons dung ; or you mufl pour upon them fix Jextarii of
old urine, prepared for that purpofe : but you mufl ablaqueate the
vine, every autumn, for the firfl five years, till it grow flrong. •'But,
when the flock is full-grown, the labour of this work mufl be inter¬
mitted almofl for three years : for the legs of the vines are lefs hurt
with the iron, and the young fmall roots don’t fpring out of it fo
quickly, now the flock is become old.

C I I A P.

<

170

L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookIV.

CHAP. IX.

After what manner an ablaqueated Vine is to be pruned .

after the ablaqueation, follows the pruning,, which is
to be performed in fuch a manner, that, according to the di¬

rection of antient authors, the vine may be reduced to one fmall rod,
and that it be cut fo as to leave two eyes next to the earth j which
pruning mufl not be performed juft by the joint, left the eye be put in
fear ; but the wound is made with the knife obliquely, almoft in the
middle of the fpace between the knots, left the fear, if it were made
exactly croffways, fhould contain the rain that falls upon it ; but neither
muft it decline towards that part where the bud is, but towards the
back part, that fo the cut being made floping, it may let its tears fall
rather upon the ground than upon the bud: for the moifture that flows
down blinds the eye, and fuffers it not to put forth its buds*

HERE are two feafons for pruning; but that of the fpring (as Mago

fays) is the beft, before the cutting begins to fprout, and put forth

its buds; becaufe, being full of juice, it does not refill the pruning-knife,
but receives an eafy, fmooth, and equal wound. Celfus and Atticus
were of the fame mind with him. But we are of opinion, that plants
ought neither to be kept too much under, by pruning them too near,
unlefs they be very weak ; nor be cut by any means in the fpring of
the year. But, indeed, the firft year they are planted, they mull be
affifted by frequent diggings, every month, while they have leaves upon
them ; and by frequently pulling olf their fuperfluous leaves and twigs,
that they may gather ftrength, and not minifter nourilhment to more
than one firm-wood branch. And, after they have educated this, we
are of opinion, that, either in the autumn, or in the fpring, if it be
more convenient, every thing that is fuperfluous upon them fhould be
pared away ; and that they be freed from the nephews, or fecondary
twigs, which the vine-drefler had omitted in their upper part, and fo
be placed upon the frame. For that vine is fmooth and ftraight, with-
y out

Chap. XI. Of HUSBANDRY. 171

Oat a fear, which, with the rod of the firft year, has raifed itfelf above
the frame, which happens but very feldom, and with few Hufband-
men. Therefore the forefaid authors gave it as their judgment, to cut
off the firft fruits of the vine. But neither, indeed, is pruning in the
fpring of the year beft in all countries. But where places are expofed
to the fun, and the winters are mild, pruning in autumn is beft, and
4 mod; natural j at which time, trees, by a certain divine and eternal law,
drop both their fruit and their leaves.

CHAP. XL

How a Cutting ought to be cut arid lopped .

IT is my opinion you fhould do this, whether you have planted a
quickfet, or a cutting : for experience has condemned that antient
opinion, that cuttings of one year old ought not to be touched with the
knife, becaufe they dread an edge-tool. ; which Virgil (i) and Safema ,
the Stolos and the Catos (2), were afraid of without any foundation ;
who not only erred in this, that they fuffered the firft year’s capilla-
ments of plants to remain untouched ; but that after the (pace of three
years, when the quickfet was to be cut, they cut away all the upper
part of it to the very ground, juft by the joint itfelf, that fo it might
pullulate out of the hard wood. But ufe, the mafter of arts, has taught
us to form and regulate the growth of cuttings of the firft year, and
not to fuffer the vine, growing luxuriant with fuperfluous leaves and
twigs, to wax wild j nor, on the other hand, to reftrain and curb
it fo much as the antients directed, fo as to cut off all the upper part
of it ; for this is exceeding hurtful to it : firft, becaufe moft of the
plants, after you have cut them as low as the ground, (having received,
as it were, an intolerable wound) perifh, and fome of them alfo, which
have been fo ftubborn as to live, put forth wood-branches, that are not
fo fruitful as otherwife they would have been ; feeing it is allowed by
every-body, that fhoots which fprout out of the hard part of the vine,
are very often deftitufe of fruit : a middle way therefore muft be fol¬
lowed, viz that we neither cut the cutting clofe to the ground, nor, on
the other hand, provoke or encourage it to fhoot out into firm-wood,

(i) Virg. Georg. Mk fi. 362, 369.

(2) Cato de re rujiica , hb. xxxiii. 21

Z 2 0

1 7 2 L, Jr M. COLUMELLA Book IW

to a greater length than is requifite; but, having remarked the thumb (3)
of the former year, we may leave, above the very place where the
old fpray was joined to it, one or two eyes from which it may ger¬
minate.

CHAP. XII.

After what mamier a Vineyard mufi he propped \ and of the

fingle Frame for Vines .

NOW, after the pruning, follows the care of propping a vineyard ;

but this year does not as yet require a very ftrong prop or flake.
For I have obferved, that, for the mofl part, a tender young vine refls
better upon a fmall prop, than upon a very high flrong pole. There¬
fore we will either apply two old reeds (left young ones ftrike root)
to each vine ; or, if the condition of the country permits it, fet old
l'pear-ftaves into the ground, to which may be faftened fingle tranfverfe
poles toward the lower part of the row j which kind of rail or frame
Ruftics call Canterius (a Horfe) : it is of very great advantage, that
there be fomething which the tendril, creeping forth, may prefently
take hold of, a little below the bending of the vine* and rather fpread
itfelf on each hand on the tranfverfe poles, than grow upwards towards
the higher part of a frame ; and that, leaning upon the rail, it may more
eafily bear up againft the winds. It will be proper, that this frame be
not raifed fo high as four feet, till fuch time as the vine ftrengthens
itfelf.

CHAP. XIII.

After what manner a Vine is to be tied.

NEXT after the propping follows the binder, whofe bufinefs is to
raife the vine llraight up to the frame ; and, whether it be fet
juft by the prop, as fome authors would have it j he that binds it ought

(3) Tolley c. The antienc Husbandmen, when they cut off any fpray growing out of the
fide of a branch of a vine, and left a fmall flump remaining, not cutting it clofe to the branch,
called that flump a Thumb, from the refemblancc it bore to the thumb of one’s hand.

t0

%

Chap. XIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 173

to beware of thinking, that he (hould follow the bending of the flake
in binding the firm-wood branch to it (if, peradventure, it be crooked) ;
for this makes the vine crooked ; or, whether there be a fpace left
between the vine and the prop, (as Teemed bed: to Atticus , and fome
other Hufbandmen, and which I am not ill pleafed with) the reed mu ft
be joined ftraight to the plant, and fo by feveral bindings it mu ft be
brought up to the frame. It is of great importance what kind of bind¬
ings the plants are bound with : for, while the vine is young and ten¬
der, it muft be bound with the fofteft that can be found j for, if you
bind them with wickers, either of willow or elm, as the vine grows
thicker, it cuts itfelf. Therefore broom is beft for this purpofe, or
bulrufhes cut in marfhes, or long grafs that grows in pools of ftanding
water. Neverthelefs, the leaves of reeds alfo, dried in the fhade, are
not at all bad for this ufe.

CHAP. XIV.

Cuttings muft be put upon a Frame , and how high the fmgle
Frame , or Rail , muft be rafted.

BUT the like care muft be taken of cuttings alfo, that they be put
upon the frame, after they are pruned to one or two eyes, either
in autumn, or in the fpring, before they put forth their buds. Ther
rail, or horfe, as I faid, muft not be railed fo high above the earth,
as it is for vines that grow in rows : nor ought it to be more than one-
foot high, that fo there may be fomething to which the yet tender and
young branches may bind themfelves with their tendrils, that they may
not be rooted up by the winds. Then follows the digger, who is fre¬
quently to turn up with hoes the furface of the ground equally, and by
little and little at a time.

We approve moft of this even plain digging j for that which in
Spain they call the winter-digging , when the earth is drawn from the
vines, and brought into the middle fpaces between the rows, feems fuper-
fluous to us, becaufe the autumnal ablaqueation has immediately pre¬
ceded, which has laid bare the uppermoft fmail roots, and reached to
thofe that are undermoft, and transmitted the winter-fhowers. But the-
number of diggings ought either to be the fame with that of the firft
year, or lefs by one j for certainly the ground muft be frequently ftirred,.

i7 4 L. J. M. C OLUMELL A Book IV.

till iuch time as the vines, by their growth, overlhadow it, and don’t
fuffer the weeds to grow under them.

This year, the fuperfluous twigs and leaves muft be pulled off, in the
very fame manner as they were the firft year. For the puerile age, as
it were, of the plants, muft as yet be kept under due reftraint, and
not more than one rod of the plant be fet apart for bearing fruit j and
fo much the more indeed, becaufe its tender age cannot endure to be
burdened both with offspring, or fruit, and with firm- wood branches.

CHAP. XV.

After what 7?ianner a Vineyard muft be recruited , a?id how

Layers are to be made .

BUT when the vineyard, of one year and an half old, is brought
the length of the vintage, after the fruit is taken away, it muft
be fupplied and filled up with new plants (i) ; and the prefidiary- cut¬
tings (2), which were fet for that purpofe, muft be propagated : or,
if we have none of thefe, a layer muft be drawn from a vine growing
in the row, to another ftake. For it is of very great importance, that
every prop be cloathed by ftill planting a new vine in the room of that
which is dead j and not to be afterwards recruiting our vineyard, when
we ought to be reaping the fruit thereof.

There is a kind of layer (3) when the vine is bended above the earth
hard by the prop, and, being put under-ground, is, by a deep trench,
carried to the prop j then from the arch which it forms, it puts forth
vehemently a firm- wood branch (4), which, being prefently applied to

• its

(1) Vine a frequent anda. The meaning of this phrafe is, that when any of the regular
vines of a vineyard, i.e. fuch of them as grow in the rows, happen to die, their places
mull be fupplied with other vines from other places ; for this purpofe, the author directs
to plant cuttings between the vines, in order to have a fupply always ready at hand, when
they are warned.

( 2 ) Malleolus prafidiarius is a cutting fet between the vines that grow in rows in a vine¬
yard, in order to fupply their place, if they fhould happen to die.

(3) Mergus , a layer. This has its name from fowls, that dive into the water. The vine
is bended into the earth, and carried under-ground a little way, and then raifed up again j
:and fo refembles thofe fowls which dive under water, and rife up again at fome diftance
from the place where they firft plunged into it.

(4) Turn ex areu vehement er citat materiam. Citare^ a word frequently ufed by our author,
to exprefs a vine’s putting forth its buds, leaves, fruit, or roots, as it were fummoning them

to

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY. 175

its own prop, is called up to the frame. Then the following year an
incifion is made upon the upper part of the curvature, as far as the pith,
left the rod, which is propagated, attract the whole ftrength of its mother >
and that it may learn, by little and little, to be nourifhed by its own
roots. Then, when it is two years old, it is chopped off hard by the
young branch, which, from the bow or arch, is fet apart for growth ;
and that which is newly cut off from its mother, is prefently digged
deep all round ; and, a fmall trench being made, you muft cut it clofe
by the very bottom of the trench, and cover it over with earth, that it
may ftrike its roots downwards, and not fprout out towards the furface
of the earth, after it has been negligently cut too near the fame. But
there is no time fitter for making the amputation of this layer, than
from the fifteenth of October to the thirteenth of November , that fo it
may confirm and fix its roots in the winter-months. For, if we do
this in the fpring, when the vine-branches begin to put forth their buds,
being fuddenly deprived of maternal nourifhment, it falls into a languifh-
ing condition.

CHAP. XVI.

At what time a ^ uickfet inujl be tranfplanted .

TH E fame method muft be obferved in tranfplanting a cutting :

for, in the fecond autumn, if the quality of the climate, and of
the place, allows it, it is moil conveniently taken out of the ground
after the fifteenth of October , and planted. But if fome hurtful qua¬
lity, either of the earth, or of the air, be repugnant, then the time for
removing it is delayed till next fpring. Nor muft it be left longer in
the vineyards, left it confume the ftrength of the ground, and annoy
the plants that grow in the rows, which, the fooner they are freed from
the company and partnerfhip of the quickfets, fo much the more eafily
do they grow, and gather ftrength. But, in a nurfery, you may keep
a vine very fafely three, yea, four years, when you have cut or pruned
it very near, becaufe the vintage is not what you have in view.

to flaew themfelves. The meaning of this fentcnce is, that whenever a vine is bended, and
laid in the ground, it vigoroufly putteth forth a ihoot at the bow, or arched part, which
will grow up to be a firm-wood branch ; for, in the language of ruftic wrirers, materia
lignifies, when they are fpeaking of vines, the woody part, or a (hoot, which in time will
grow up, and become firm- wood.

When

176 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV

When a vineyard has been planted above thirty months, that is, in
the third autumn, it mud; prefently be fupported with ftronger and
higher props ; and this muft not be done juft as you lift, or at random ;
for, whether you fix the prop near to the ftock, yet you muft keep at
the diftance of one foot from it, left it either prefs upon, or wound
the root, and that the digger may dig round the plants on every fide.
And this prop muft be fo placed, that it may receive the violence,
both of the colds, and of the north winds, and protect the vine j or,
whether you fix it in the middle of the fpace between two rows, you
muft either dig a hole for it, and fo fink it into fhe ground, or you
muft firft bore the ground with a fmall ftake, and then drive the prop
deeper into the earth, that it may more eafily fupport both the frame,
and the fruit. For, the nearer the pale is placed to the ftock of the
vine, the more firm and fteady it will be, fuppofe it be but fiightly
faftened in the ground ; for, being near to the vine, it mutually fupports,
and is fupported.

Then, upon the fupporting props, you muft bind very firm and ftrong
frames j and thefe muft be made either with willow- poles, ©r with
reeds put, as it were, into bundles, to give them fufficient ftiffnefs, fo
that they may not yield, nor fink down with the weight of the fruit.
For now two firm-wood branches muft be preferved upon each plant,
and fet apart for bearing fruit ; unlefs, notwithftanding, the flendernefs
of any vine {hall require a clofer pruning, of which only one fruit¬
bearing branch muft be left, with very few eyes upon the fame.

CHAP. XVII.

After what manner a Frame muft be made with Reeds.

A Frame made of poles is the firmed, and requires lefs labour.

Reeds require more labourers to put them together, becaufe they
are both tied in more places j and they muft be bound with their tops
turned to one another, that the whole frame may be equally thick ;
for, if the tops are laid all one way, the weaknefs of that part, being
prefled down with the weight, lets the fruit fall to the ground, when it
is juft ripe, and expofes it to dogs and wild beads. But, when a frame
is orderly made of reeds put into bundles, with their tops turned alter¬
nately to each other, it will be fit for ufe almoft for the fpace of five
years.

Nor

Chap. XVII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. x77

Nor is the method of pruning, or of any other part of Culture, differ¬
ent from what it was the firft two years ; for, in autumn, the roots of
the vines mart be carefully laid open, and no lefs care taken to apply
new vines by layers to the vacant props ; for this work muft: never be
intermitted, but let it be renewed every year : for indeed fuch things as
are planted by us cannot be immortal; neverthelefs we thus ufe our en¬
deavours to make them eternal, by fubftituting new plants in the room
of fuch as are dead ; nor do we fuffer the whole generation to be reduced
\o utter deftru&ion by the negledt of many years. Moreover, we muft
bellow frequent diggings upon them, tho’ we may with-hold one dig¬
ging from the Culture we bellowed upon them the firft year. The
ibperfluous leaves and twigs muft be often plucked off; nor is it enough
to do this to the vine once and again the whole fummer : but efpecially
all thofe things, which fprout out below the head of the flock, muft be
lhaken off. Alfo, if each eye upon the frame fhould fend forth two
young fhoots, tho’ they fhew us great plenty of fruit, yet one of the
fmall fruit-bearing branches muft be pulled off, that the firm-wood
branch, which remains, may thrive the better, have the better heart,
rear itfelf the more chearfully, and educate the fruit that remains thg
better.

After the one-and-fortieth month, when the vintage is finifhed, the
pruning muft be fo managed, that the vine may be fpread and divided
into the form of a liar, by fetting apart feveral rods or long fhoots for
bearing fruit. But it is the bufinefs of the Pruner to reftrain and keep in
the vine almoft within the fpace of one foot round the frame, that what¬
ever tender thing is fent forth from the head of the vine all along its
arms, may be encouraged and helped forward, and, after bending it
over the frame, be precipitated to fuch a degree, as not to touch the
earth.

But a due meafure muft be oblerved, in proportion to the ftrength
of the ffcock, left more fruit-bearing branches be fet apart for bearing
fruit, than the vine is able to minifter fufficient nourifhment to. But
ordinarily the forefaid age, in a rich ground, where the ftock thrives
very well, requires and allows of three firm-wood branches, feldom
f«ir, which the Binder ought to feparate and divide into as many dif¬
ferent parts ; for it is to no purpofe that the frame be decuffated and
made into the form of a ftar, and be fpread wide and divided, unlefs
the fruit-bearing branches of the vine be fpread and joined to it in the
like manner : which form neverthelefs all Hufbandmen have not ap¬
proved of; for many have contented themfelves with extending the vine
in one line. But a vine is more liable, and abler to bear the burden both

A a of

178 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

of the young branches and fprays, and of the fruit, which, being bound
on both fides to the frame, is, by an equal counterpoife, kept fall as
with fo many anchors ; as alfo a vine, that is fupported on every fide,
diffufes and fpreads abroad firm-wood branches by more arms, and
opens and difplays them more eafily, than that which, upon a fingle
rail, is crouded with very many fruit-bearing branches.

Neverthelefs, if a vine is not fpread out to a great breadth, and does
not bear very much fruit, and has neither a foggy nor a ftormy climate,
it may be fatisfied with one fingle frame ; for, where rains and ftorms
come with great force and violence, where the vine is weakened by
frequent rains, and where it hangs, as it were, upon exceeding fteep
hills, and requires very many defences and fafeguards, there it muft
be fortified and fupported all round, as it were, with a fquare battalion.
But, in warm and drier places, the frame muft be ft retched out on
every fide, that fo the fhoots, creeping forth on all fides, may be joined,
and, being laid clofe, and compacted together, in the manner of an
arched roof, may overfhadow the thrifty earth. On the contrary, in
cold and frofty countries, the vines muft be ranged in fingle rows in
one line ; for thus both the ground is more eafily warmed by the fun,
and the fruit is throughly ripened,- and wholfome air will have the more
eafy accefs to it, and pafs through it the more freely. The Diggers
all'o handle and move their hoes and fpades more freely and eafily ; and
the Keepers have a better and more thorough view of the fruit j and
the Vintager gathers it more commodioufly.

CHAP. XVIII.

Of dividing a Vineyard into fmall Orchards .

BUT, when you fhall think it proper to put your vineyard into
regular divifions, iet one hundred vines be diftinguifhed by foot¬
paths into orchards apart by themfelves j or (as fome perfons think
proper) let the whole compafs or extent of your vineyard be divided
into divifions of half a jugerum each ; which diftindtion, befides that
conveniency, that it affords more fun and wind to the vines, it alfo
gives more eafy admittance both to the eyes and feet of the Proprietor,
things extremely falutary to vineyards, and affords us a certain rule to
go by in eftimating and exacting that proportion of labour we expedt

from

Chap. XIX. Of HUSBANDRY. 179

from our labourers and fervants ; for we cannot be deceived, when the
jugera are thrown into equal divifions and intervals.

Moreover, this very diftribution into fmall orchards, the fmaller the
modules or proportions are, into which it is cut, the more it leftens, as
it were, the fatigue, and at the fame time encourages fuch as are doing
the work to difpatch it quickly ; for commonly the vajinefs of the
prefting work incumbent upon them difheartens them, and weakens
their courage. It is alfo fome advantage to know the ftrength of your
vineyards, and how much fruit every part produces, that we may
rightly judge which parts we mull: bellow more or lefs culture upon.
Alfo thefe paths will give convenient room to the Grape-gatherers, and
to thofe who repair the frames and props, by which alfo either the fruits,
or materials for fupporting the vines, may be carried.

CHAP. XIX.

Of the Poftion of a Fra?ne , and how far it 9?iufl be raifed

above the Ground.

AS to the polition of a frame (i), how far it mull be raifed from
the ground, it is fufficient to fay this, that the loweft mull be
four feet high, and the higheft feven j which laft neverthelefs is to be
avoided in young plants : for vineyards ought not to be conftituted after
this manner at firft ; but the vine muft be gradually carried to this
height after a long fucceftion of years. But the moifter the foil and the
climate are, and the calmer the winds, fo much the higher muft the

(1) Jugum. As mod vines have not ftiffnefs enough to ftand upright of themfelves,
therefore they muft be fupporred by props, which, being fixed in the ground, and the vines
fattened to them, not only keep them from falling, but preferve them from being broken
by ftormy winds. When the vine, after it is grown up to a certain height, begins to ex¬
tend its arms, and fpread itfelf, then they make frames or yokes (juga) to lay them upon,
and fupport them. Thefe they make by fixing two poles or ftakes in the ground, at a
certain diftance from each other, and alfo from the vine, according to the length of its
boughs. To the top of the two ere<ft poles they apply a tranfverfe one, which they fatten
to them at each end. This they call a jugum, which is commonly made higher than the
head of the vine (They call the head of the vine that part, from which the arms or boughs
rfliie and extend themfelves). Upon this frame they place the arms ; and, when the vine
is ftrong, and puts forth boughs in abundance, they divide it into four quarters, to each
of which they apply a frame, forming it like a ftar, or the letter X ; and this they call
decuffating the vine , decuffare , vel in formam decujjis redigere. They might add one frame
ofter another, if they had a mind to extend the vine farther ; but this was not ufually
done.

frame

A a 2

180 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

frame be raifed j for the thriving condition of vines allows them to
ramble, and fpread, and ftretch themfelves to a greater height ; and the
fruit, which is removed to a good diftance from the earth, is lefs liable
to rot j and by this method only the winds blow freely through them,
and quickly dry up the fogs, and peftilentious dew, and contribute much
to their carting their bloffoms duly, and to the goodnefs of the wine.
On the other hand, poor land, that lies on the fide of a hill, and is
parched with the fcorching heat, or that which is obnoxious to vehe¬
ment rtorms, requires a lower frame. But, if all things fall out ac¬
cording to your wifh, and are agreeable to your defire, the true and
right height of a vine is five feet; nevenhelefs there is no doubt, but
the higher the frames are, which the vines rife up to, of fo much the
better tafte is the muft which they yield.

CHAP. XX.

Of the Bufmefs of binding Vines .

AFTER the vineyard is propped, and put upon frames, follows
the work of the Binder, whofe principal concern ought to be,
to keep the ftock of the vine ftraight, and not to make it follow the
bending of the flake, left the crooked nefs of the prop fhould form the
vine after its own fimilitude. This contributes very much not only to
its beautiful appearance, but all'o to its fruitfulnefs, firmnefs, and
perpetuity ; for a ftraight ftock contains a pith like to itfelf, through
which, as by a certain way or paflage, without winding or impedi¬
ment, the nourifhment, which the mother earth fupplies it with, partes
the more eafily, and reaches to the very top ; but l'uch as are crooked
and diftorted are not equally acceflible to the terreftrial moifture (i),
the knots hindering, and the bending itfelf, as fo many rugged un¬
even places, retarding its incurfion ; wherefore, when the vine is drawn
up ftraight to the very top of the flake, it is bound faft to it with a
band, that fo, when it is burdened with fruit, it may not fink down,,
and be bended and crookened. Then, from that place, where that which
is next to the frame is tied to it, its arms are difpofed and diftributed

(i) Vine <e curves & dijlorta non aqualiter alliduntur. Oar author, who borrows words
and phrafes from a vaft many different things, and applies them to the fubjedt he is fpealc-
ing of, had, no doubt, in his view here the motion of waters towards the fhore, and their
dafhing upon them ; and thereby expreffes the motion of the juice of the vine towards its
branches, which, he fays, cannot have equal accefs to them when the vine is diftorted.

i into

Chap. XXI. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 181

into different parts, and the fmall fruit-bearing branches, which are
placed upon the frame, are, with a band, bended downward: therefore
that, which hangs down from the frame, is replenished with fruit.
Moreover, the bending or curvature puts forth a firm-wood branch
hard by the band.

Some Spread out upon the frame that part which we precipitate, and,
by tying it in Several places with willows, keep it within bounds j which
I don’t at all think are to be approved : for neither rains, nor hoar-frofts,
nor hail, do fo much hurt to the dependent fruit-bearing branches, as
to thofe that are bound, and expo fed and laid open, as it were, to the
flormv weather. Nevertheless the fame fruit-bearing branches ought
to be tied faft, before their fruits become mellow, while the grapes are
yet of different colours, and bitter, that they may be lefs expofed to rot
with the dews, and to be deftroyed by the winds and wild beafls. All
along the main broad way, that runs crofs the vineyard from eaft to
weft, and alfo the Smaller paths, the fruit-bearing branches of the vines
muft be bended inwards, that they may not be hurt by the incurfions
of thofe, that pafs by. And this is certainly the way to bring a vine to
the frame, when it is of Sufficient age and growth for the fame ; for
that, which is either infirm or fhort, muft be cut to two eyes, that fa¬
it may, with more Speed, put forth firm-wood branches in abundance,,
which may quickly mount up to the frame.

CHAP. XXL

Of the Way and Manner of pruning a young Vineyard.

THERE is no other pruning requifite for a vineyard of five years
old, but that it be formed and reduced to a right Shape, in the
manner we have already directed, and that it may not Spread and extend
itfelf overmuch ; but that the head of the ftock be almoft the Space of
a foot lower than the frame, and that, with its four arms, which Some
call its old hardened wood, it be divided into as many parts. It will
be enough, that one fingle fruit-bearing branch upon each of thefe arms
be Set apart for bearing fruit, till the vines are of a Sufficient ftrength.
Then, Some years afterward, when they have attained, as it were, to
their juvenile age, it is uncertain how many fruit-bearing branches
ought to be left upon them; for a rich fertile foil requires more, and
that which is poor and lean fewer: for certain it is. that a luxuriant

vinsj,

1 82 L. J, M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

vine, unlefs it be retrained and checked with fruit, carts its blofloms
very indifferently, and exhaufts and waftes itfelf in wood and leaves.
On the other hand, that which is weak, when it is burdened with
fruit, is afflicted thereby. Therefore, in fat earth, you may, if you
will, join two rods to each arm; neverthelefs you muft not burden it
with a greater number, than that one vine may ferve or convey nou-
riihment to eight fruit-bearing branches, unlefs its too great fruitfulnefs
lhall require more ; for a vine, extended with firm-wood branches be¬
yond this meafure and proportion , has rather the appearance of a long-
extended arbour, than of a vine.

Nor ought we ever to fuffer the arms to become fuller or larger than
the rtock ; but, whenever we have it in our power to fet apart for
growth young rods or (hoots growing out of their fides, we muft con-
llantly cut away the uppermoft old hardened boughs, left they exceed
the frame : but let the vine be always renewed with young fruit-bear¬
ing branches, which, if they are grown out to a fufficient length, may be
put upon the frame. But, if any one of them be either broken to Olivers,
or not of a due length, and it occupy a proper place, from whence the
vine ought to be renewed the following year, let it be -clipped into a
thumb , which fome call a keeper , others a jhort-cut or flump , and fome
the prejldiary branchy or the branch of defence , or referve (i); that
is, a fprig of two or three eyes, from which, whenever fructiferous
firm-wood branches are come forth, whatever part of the old arm
is above them, is lopped off; and fo the vine begins to pullulate, and
fprings up again out of the young branch. And this way of managing
well-inftituted vineyards muft be perpetually obferved.

CHAP. XXII.

After what manner old Vineyards are to be rejlored.

BUT, if we (hall come to the poffefiion of vineyards formed after a
different manner ; and if, by being negledted for many years,
they are come up above the frame ; it muft be confidered what length

(i) Ctifios , refex} prafidiarius^ are names given to the young branches of vines when cut,
and they are taken eicher from the figure or appearance they made upon the bough after
they were cut, or from the ufe they were applied to ; as for example, a young branch cut
pretty near, and ftanding out a little from the bough, refembling the thumb, was called a
thumb ( pollex ) ; another let apart to fupply the place of that which was next to it, in cafe
ir fhouid die, was called cujios , or prafidiarius ; or it was cherifhed and put forward, in
order to become an arm or bough of the vine, when the old one was taken away.

5

the

Chap. XXII. O/HUSBANDRY. 1S3

the old hardened boughs are of, which exceed the forefaid meafure ;
for, if they be two feet long, or a little more, the whole vineyard may
yet be reduced into due bounds, and put under the frame, provided the
flake or prop, which lupports it, is adjoining to the flock of the vine ;
for the flake is removed to a greater diflance from the vine, and fixed
exactly in the middle fpace between the two old hardened boughs ;
then the vine is brought acrofs to the prop, and fo brought under the
frame. But, if its old hardened boughs have grown to a greater length,
and have crept forth as far as the fourth, or even the fifth prop, they
may be rellored at a greater expence by layers ; for a vineyard, renewed
and propagated by thefe, comes forward very quickly ; and this is what
pleafed us moft.

Neverthelefs, if the outfide of the flock is grown old and confumed,
it requires greater labour and pains; but, if it be flrong and found, it
requires lefs : for, being ablaqueated in the winter-time, it is fatiated
with dung, and pruned very near ; and it is wounded with the fharp
point of an iron tool in the greenefl part of the bark, between the third
and fourth foot from the ground. Then the earth is throughly mixed
by frequent diggings, that the vine may be incited and put forward to
pour forth young (hoots or branches in abundance, and efpecially from
that part where it is wounded. But, for the mofl part, a bud comes
forth out of the fear, which, if it flarts out to a greater length, is
preferved and fet apart for a rod ; but, if it is fhorter, it is fet apart
to be cut into a thumb ; but, if it be very final!, it is left for a knob ( i).
This may be made of any, even the very leafl capillament ; for when
a fmall fhoot, with one or two leaves, has crept forth out of the hard
part of the vine, provided it comes to maturity the following fpring, if
it be neither clofe pruned, nor pared away, it puts forth firm-wood
branches with great vehemence ; which, after it is grown ilrong, and
has made, as it were, an arm of the vine, you may then, if you pleafe,
cut away that part of the old hardened bough, which has extended
itfelf, and wandered beyond its bounds, and fo bring the remaining
part of it under the frame or yoke.

Many, from a defire to fave time, chop off all the Hocks of fuch
vines above the fourth foot, fearing no manner of inconveniency from
cutting them in this manner; becaufe commonly the nature of moffc
part of Hems does fo accommodate itfelf to us, that they repullulate, and

(1) FuruncuUts , a knob or knur. It is a fmall fwelling of that part of the vine which
has been wounded; or it is a bump or bojje, which a vine forms in that part where ic is
to put forth* a bud. The name is taken from a pimple, fmall fweliing, or bump in the
body.

fprout

18+ L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book IV.

fprout out again, hard by the fear, with new fhoots and leaves. But
indeed this method does not at all pleafe us ; for certain it is, that a
larger wound, unlefs it have ftrong, thriving, hard wood placed above
it, by which it may clofe and grow up again, is parched by the hot
Beams and vapours, and heat of the fun ; then, prefen tly afterwards,
it rots with the dews and rains.

Neverthelefs, when a vine imift certainly be cut down, it is proper
firft to ablaqueate it, and then to make the amputation a little below
the ground, that the earth, being thrown upon it, may defend it from
the violence of the fun, and give free pafiage to the young Items, that
break forth from the roots, which may either be married to their own
props, that properly belong to them ; or, if there are any props in their
neighbourhood that are widowers, they may, by means of layers, cloathe
them again. But thefe things muft be done in this manner, if the
vines are planted deep, and have not their roots lying loofe, and decay¬
ing upon the furface of the ground, and if they be of a good kind; for
otherwife all labour is bellowed upon them in vain, becaufe fuch as
are bafe and ignoble will retain their former difpofition, even when they
are repaired and renewed. But fuch as can fcarcely adhere to the fur-
face of the earth, will utterly decay, before they recover ftrength ;
therefore the firft fort of vineyard muft be ingrafted with fruitful
grafts ; but the other muft be intirely extirpated, and replanted, pro¬
vided the goodnefs of the foil gives you encouragement ; but if, thro’
the badnefs of the foil, the vineyard is decayed, and grown old, we are
of opinion, that it muft by no means be reftored.

Moreover, the faults and bad qualities of a place, which bring vine¬
yards to the very brink of deftru&ion, are leannefs and barrcnnejs,falt
and bitter earth , oufinefs , a Jleep-hanging rugged high fituation , one that
is too gloomy and dark, and not expofed to the fun ,J'andy valleys , alfo
fandy gravel-jloncs, and gravel that is overmuch hungry , and alfo gra¬
vel that is bare and naked, and deftitute of earth, and if there be any
other like property, which does not nourifh a vine : but, if the place
be free from all thefe inconveniencies, and others like to them, an old
vineyard may be reftored and repaired in the manner we diredted in the
preceding book. Again, thofe vineyards, that are of a bad kind, which,
altho’ they are very ftrong, are, through barrennefs, deftitute of fruit,
are, as we have faid, corrected and mended by making ingraftments,
of which we fhall difeourfe in its proper place, when we come to handle
that part of our fubjedh

CHAP.

Chap. XXIV. Of HUSBANDRY.

CHAP. XXIII.

After what 7nanner Vineyards mufi he pruned.

NOW, becaufe we feem to have faid very little of the pruning
of vineyards, we fhall the more carefully profecute the moft ne-
ceffary part of the work we have propofed. We are of opinion there¬
fore, if the mildnefs, temperatenefs, and clemency of the weather, in
that country where they dwell, will allow it, to begin the pruning
after the vintage is finifhed, about the fifteenth of October ; provided
neverthelefs, that the rains, which fall about the time of the Equinox,
are over, and the fprays, that are to be cut off, are come to their due
maturity; for a drought makes the pruning later.

But, if the cold and frofty ftate of the weather gives us notice of,
and prefages, a rough boifterous winter, we will defer this bufinefs till
the thirteenth of February ; and we are at liberty to do this, if we have
a fmall extent of ground in our poffeffion ; but where the vaft extent
of our lands does not allow us to chufe our time, it will be proper to
prune the ftrongeft and moft thriving part of our vineyard during the
colds, and the pooreft and leaned; in the fpring, or in autumn ; and
even when the days are fhorteft, we may prune fuch vines as are oppo-
fite to the fouth pole; but thofe that are expofed to the north, in the
fpring, and in autumn : nor is it to be doubted, but the nature of thefe
little trees is fuch, that the more early they are lopped, fo much the
more wood, and the later, fo much the more fruit they produce.

CHAP. XXIV.

Of fuch Tarings as a good Vine-drejfer ought to avoid or pur -
fue in a well-confituted Vineyard.

WHenfoever therefore a Vine-drefier fhall go about this work, let
him principally obferve three things : firft, to contribute all
he can towards plenty of fruit. Next, let him chufe the moft thriving
firm-wood branches from among the reft for the enfuing year. As alfo,
let him order matters fo, as to procure as long a duration for the flock
as poflibly he can ; for which foever of thefe is neglected, it occafions
great lofs to the owner.

B b

But

186 L. J. M. COLUME LL A BookIV.

But the vine, when it is divided into four parts, looks towards as
many different regions of the heavens; which quarters, inafmuch as
they have qualities contrary to one another, require a different method
of ordering and difpofing of the vine, according to the nature of their
ieveral conftitutions : therefore thofe arms of the vine, that are expofed
to the north, ought to receive very few wounds, efpecially if they be
pruned when the colds are now coming on, whereby the places, where
they have been cut, will be chilled, and much hurt : therefore one firm-
wood branch only next to the frame, and one keeper below it, muft be
fet apart for growth, which may afterwards renew the vine for one
year. But, on the contrary, towards the fouth, let more fruit-bearing
branches be preferved and fet apart for growth, which may cover and
fhade their mother, labouring with the fcorching fummer-heats, and
not fuffer the fruit to parch and wither before it comes to maturity.
There is fcarcely indeed any great difference in pruning with refpedt to
the eaft and weft, becaufe the vine receives the fun an equal number of
hours towards both quarters. The meafure therefore, with refpedt to
firm- wood branches, fhall be that which the richnefs and goodnefs of
the ground, and the thriving condition of the item itfelf, fhall pre-
fcribe.

Thefe things muft: be obferved in general ; but thofe which follow,
require particular confideration, and muft: be particularly obferved.
For, that I may begin at the lower part of the vine, as at certain foun¬
dations, as it were, the earth round the leg of the vine muft: always be
removed from it with the hatchet ; and if any offspring, which Ruftics
call Suckers , adhere to the roots of it, they muft be carefully pulled
up, and it muft be fmoothed with the knife, that it may refufe admit¬
tance to the winter-rains : for it is better to pull out the offspring, that
repullulates out of the wound, than to leave a knotty and rugged cut.
For, by that way, it foon clofes and forms a fear ; and by this it is
made hollow, and rots.

Then having taken a thorough care of the feet, as it were, of the
vines, the legs themfelves, and trunks, muft be carefully viewed all
round, and examined, that neither any young branch fprung out of
the ftock, or any knob like a wart, be left upon them ; unlefs it hap¬
pens, that a vine caft upon a frame fhall require to be repaired and
renewed from the lower part. But, if that part of the ftock which is
cut, be withered with the heat of the fun ; or if the vine be hollowed
by the rains, or by hurtful animals, which creep into it thro’ the pith ;
it will be proper to take intirely away, with the hatchet, whatever part
of it is dead : and then, that it be pared to the very quick with the

pruning-

Chap. XXIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 187

pruning-knife, that it may form a fear from the green part of the (lock.
Nor is it a difficult thing, foon after you have fmoothed the wounds,
to daub them over with earth, which you have firfh moiftened with
lees of oil. For this fort of daubing hinders the worms, that gnaw
the wood, and the ants, to enter; and alfo keeps off the fun, and the
rains. Thele things make it clofe its wounds the fooner, and preferve
the fruit green (i). Alfo the dry bark, which is cloven, and hangs
down all along the uppermoft parts of the trunk, muft be pulled off as
far as its body ; becaufe the vine, when it is freed, as it were, from
all filth and naftinefs, thrives the better, and grows ftrong, and brings
lefs dregs with its wine.

Moreover, the mofs alfo, which, like fetters, compreffes the legs of
the vines that are bound therewith, and macerates them with its
mouldinefs and naftinefs, occafioned by the moifture which refts in it,
muft be feraped and pared off with the iron. And thefe are the things
which muft be carefully obferved with refpedt to the lower part of the
vine. Let us next give fuch directions alfo, as muft be obferved with
refpedt to its head.

The wounds which the vine receives in its hard wood, ought to be
made oblique and round ; for they recover their health, and grow*
ftrong the fooner ; and as long as they have not formed a fear, they
pour off the water more commodioufly : tranfverfe wounds both receive,
and contain more moifture. Let the Vine-dreffer efjpecially avoid this
fault. Let him cut off all fprays that are broad (2), old, ill-fhaped,
crooked, and that look downward ; and preferve, and fet apart for
growth, and for bearing fruit, the young, fruitful, and ftraight ones ;
let him preferve the tender and green arms, and cut away, with the
pruning-hook, fuch as are dry and old : let him pare, or cut off, the
one-year old nails (3) of the keepers. When he has raifed his vine
almoft four feet above the earth, let him divide and difpofe it regu¬
larly

(1) Coalefcit telefius , & fruBum widen eonfervat. Some think, that trunemn ought to
be put inftead of fruttum, becaufe the author is only fpeaking of the trunk of the vine :
but all the editions ha vefrufium. Perhaps the author was of opinion, that the things men¬
tioned in the text contribute to keep the fruit green, and hinder it from drying up and wi¬
thering.

(2) Sarmenta lata. It is not eafy to determine what the author means by broad fpraysy
if not fuch as rather fpread into thicknefs, than grow out tapering. Some from their own
conjecture, and not from any good authority, read lata inftead of lata.

(3) Ungues cujlodum annotinos. It has been already explained what our author means by
cuflodes (keepers). Herehefpeaks of ungues cuflodumfhe nails of the keepers. To underftand •
this expreftion, it muft be remembered, that a fprigor young branch cut off from a branch
within a fmall diftance from the place out of which it grows, refembles a thumb ; and is fo

Bb 2 called

188 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

larly into four arms, and let each of them look towards, and correfpond
to a part of, the frame, which is decuflated, or made in the form of
the letter X: then let him leave, upon each arm, one rod for growth,
and bearing fruit, if the vine be more {lender and lean ; or two, if it
be fuller grown ; and having placed them upon the frame, let him pre¬
cipitate them (4). But we muft remember, never to fuffer two or more
firm- wood branches to be upon one line, and in one fide of the arm :
for that annoys the vine very much, when every part of the arm does
not equally partake of the labour and pain in its turn, and difpenfe
an equal portion of juice to its offspring; but is fucked and drained of
its moifture on one fide only : whereby it comes to pafs, that that vein,
whofe intire moifture is taken away from it, dries up and withers, as
if it were ftruck with lightning.

Alfo there is what is called the Chop-branch (y), which ufes to creep
out exadlly in the middle of a forked bough; and therefore Ruftics call
it by the aforefaid name ; becaufe, fpringing out between two arms,
where the vine divides itfelf, it blocks up its chops, as it were, and
bereaves both the old hardened boughs of their nourifhment ; therefore
they cut it off carefully as a rival, and fned it, before it becomes ftrong.
If, neverthelefs, it has prevailed to fuch a degree, as to have weakened
one of the arms, the weakeft muft be taken away, and the chop-branch
itfelf left to grow in its room. For, when the arm is cut off, the mo¬
ther conveys ftrength to both parts equally. Therefore let him con-
ftitute and fix the head of the vine one foot below the frame, from
whence the four arms, as I faid, may fpread themfelves, by which the
vine may be renewed yearly, by cutting off the old fruit-bearing branches,
and leaving the young ones to grow and bear fruit in their ftead, of
which the choice muft be made very fkilfully. For, where there is
great plenty of firm-wood branches, the Pruner ought to obferve care¬
fully, that he neither leave thofe that are next to the hard-wood, that

is, from the ftock, and the head of the vine ; nor, on the other hand,

called by our author. He diredts it to be cut obliquely, or flanting, which gives the extre¬
mity of it the fhape of the nail of the thumb ; and, as this cut is made above the bud,
when this fhoots forth, that part which is called the nail, withers, and grows dry : therefore
the author orders all fuch as are of a year old, to be pared away. A cut exadtly crofs the
wood is called plaga tranflverfla ; and one that is flanting, is called obliqua.

(4) Precipitate vitis flagellum , to precipitate a rod, fignifies, to hang it down over the
frame ; which pofition contributes more to the plenty and goodnefs of the fruit, than laying
it wholly upon, and binding it to, the frame.

(5) Palmes floe aneus. The author explains this very diflin&ly himfelf : I have tranflated

it, the Chops Branch. It grows in the middle, between the two arms of the vine, as Balia
likewife fays in Feb. 12. 2.

thofe

Chap. XXIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 189

thofe towards the extremities. For thofe contribute very little to the
vintage, as they yield but little fruit, being, indeed, like branches,
that grow out of the dock : and thefe exhaud the vine, becaufe they
load her with too much fruit, and extend themfelves as far as the fecond
or third flake, which we have already faid is intirely wrong. Where¬
fore it will be mod convenient to fet apart for fruit thofe branches
that grow out of the middle of the arms, which may neither frudrate
our hopes of a vintage, nor emaciate their own ftem.

Some men with more greedinefs force as much fruit as podible, by
fetting apart for fruit both the middle and the extreme rods, and alfo
by cutting the fprig, that grows next to the hard part of the vine, into
a keeper ; which I don’t at all think ought to be done, unlefs the flrength
of the foil, and the flock, will allow of it. For they array themfelves
fo with grapes, that they can never ripen, unlefs the ground be ex¬
ceeding good, and the flock itfelf in a thriving condition. The fubfi-
diary branch, or Branch of Referve , which is the fame with the keeper ,
ought not to be cut into a thumb , when the branches, from which the
next fruits are expedited, are fituated in a proper and fit place. For,
when you have bound them, and bended them fo as to make them
look downward towards the earth, you will make them put forth firm-
wood branches below the bindings. But if the vine has darted out from
the head, to a greater length than the cudom of Hulbandmen allows,
and has crept with its arms over to the penthoufes formed by the vines upon
the other frames, we will leave a ftrong keeper, and the greated we
can find, hard by the dock, of two or three joints, from which, as from
a thumb , a firm- wood branch fpringingup, may be formed into an arm
the next year, that the vine, being thus cut and renewed, may be con¬
tained within the frame.

But, in fetting apart a keeper , and putting it forward for growth,
thefe following things mud be chiefly obferved. Fird, that the cut or
wound don’t look upward to the heavens, but rather downward to the
earth : for thus it both protects itfelf from the frods, and is diaded from
the fun. Secondly, that the cut be not made pointed, like to a dart,,
but like to the fmall nail of one’s finger j for that dies more quickly,,
and the dead part fpreads farther : but this is only put in fear, and that
butflowly, and to no great extent (6). There is alfo a thing, which I

obferve

(6) Rtformidat tarde <& angufliu s. The meaning of thefe two fines is this : The author
directs the Pruner to cut the keeper, or prefidiary branch, like the nail of one’s finger, and not
pointed like a dart ; becaufe, when the cut is fharp, pointed, and long, a great part of it
dies, and death fpreads itfelf further ; whereas, when the cut is made in the form of the nail

of

1 90 L. J. M. C OLUMELLA Book IV.

obferve is pradtifed, and is exceedingly wrong, which ought efpecially
to be avoided ; for, while they have great regard to the graceful appear¬
ance of the vine, they cut the fpray hard by the joint, that the keeper
may be the fhorter, and like to the thumb of one's hand. But this is
very hurtful, becaufe the gem, being placed hard by the wound, la¬
bours or fuffers by the frofts and colds, and afterwards by the heat alfo.
It is beft, therefore, to clip the fubfi diary branch, or branch of referve,
almoft in the middle of the fpace between the two joints, and to make
the cut (helving downwards behind the gem, left it let its tears fall
upon it, (as we have already laid) and fo blind the eye when it is bud¬
ding. But, if we are not provided with a port-cut branchy we muft
look about for a knob, which, though it be not extremely near, and
refemble a wart, may put forth a wood-branch the next fpring, which
we may appropriate either for an arm, or for a fruit-bearing branch.
If even this cannot be found, the vine muft be wounded with the iron,
and exulcerated in that part where we are delirous to make a young
branch to come forth.

Now I am, indeed, very much of the opinion, that the fruit-beariug
branches themfelves ought to be freed from tendrils and nephews. But,
in cutting thefe away, a different method muft be obferved from that
which we obferve with refpedt to thofe which grow out of the ftock :
for, whatever it is that jutteth out of the hard part of the vine, muft be
fned off, and (craped away, by applying the pruning-knife more ftrongly
and cloler to it, that it may the more fpeedily form a fear. On the
contrary, whatever fprouts out of the tender part, as the nephew does,
is cut off more fparingly ; becaufe, for the moil part, it has a gem
hard by its fide, joined with it, of which very great care muft be
taken, left it be ftruck off with the pruning-knife. For, if you fned
it very near, with the pruning-knife applied very clofe to it, it is either
wholly taken away, or is fore wounded : for which reafon, the fruit-
bearing branch , which afterwards it will put forth when it germinates,
is weak, and will bear lefs fruit ; as alfo it is more liable to be hurt by
the winds : doubtlefs, becaufe it creeped out of the fear in a weak con¬
dition.

But it is difficult to determine exadtly the length of the firm-wood
branch itlelf, which we are to fet apart for growth. Neverthelefs,
moft people cherifh and call it forth to fuch a length, that when

of a finger, the part does not die, but is only put in fear : and this reaches no great way,
and but (lowly ; /. e. it languifhes a little, but recovers itfelf again. Thefe are beautiful
expreffions in the original, but, I fear, will have but little grace in an Englijh tranflation.

2

it

Chap. XXIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 191

it is bended, and precipitated all along the frame, it may not touch the
earth. We are of opinion, that thefe following things ought to be
confidered with greater attention : Firft, the habit and conftitution of
the vine ; for, if it be ftrong, it will fuftain larger firm-wood branches.
Next, we mull confider thefatnefs of the foil alfo ; for, unlefs it have this
quality , we fhall quickly kill even the ftrongeft and moft thriving vine what-
foever, when it is emaciated by longer rods than is proper. But long fruit¬
bearing branches are valued and efteemed, not for their length, but for the
number of eyes which they have. For, where thefpaces between the
joints are greater, we may, if we pleafe, lengthen out the firm- wood
branch fo far, till it almoft touch the ground ; for it will put forth but
few young twigs and leaves : but where the joints are thick, and ftand
near to one another, and the eyes are frequent, tho’ the fpray be but
fhort, yet it will flourifh, and grow ftrong, with many fruit-bearing
twigs, and produce a moft numerous offspring. Wherefore it is necef-
fary to fet bounds to a vine of this kind efpecially, that it may not be
burdened with fruit-bearing branches of too great a length ; and that
the Viiie-dreffer confider, whether the laft year’s vintage was great, or
fmall j for the vines muft be fpared after great plenty of fruit, and
therefore muft be pruned very near ; but, after producing but a fmall
quantity, they muft be put upon exerting themfelves.

Over-and-above what has been faid, we alfo give this direction, that
this work be done with hard iron tools, and the thinneft and fharpeft
that can be found ; for a blunt, dull, and foft pruning-knife is a hin¬
drance to the Pruner, and therefore does lefs work, and occafions more
labour to the Vine-dreffer. For, whether the edge be laid, which hap¬
pens to a foft iron tool j or whether it penetrates more flowly, as is
the cafe with one that is blunt and thick j he is obliged to put-to more
ftrength : as alfo rugged and uneven wounds tear the vine ; and the
bufinefs is tranfadled not by one blow, but by often repeated ftrokes,
whereby, for the moft part, it comes to pafs, that that which ought to
have been cut, is broken, and fo the vine, being thus butchered and
made rugged, rots with the rains, and its wounds are not healed up.
Wherefore, the Vine-dreffer muft be earneftly admonifhed to lengthen
the edge of his iron tool, and make it as like a razor as he pofiibly can.
Neither let him be ignorant what part of the bill he muft ufe, in every
thing : for I have known very many, who have laid vineyards wafte,
through their want of knowledge in this particular.

C I I A P.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

192

CHAP. XXV.

Of the Figure of the Bill , or Prunmg-knife ( 1 ),

BUT the fhape of the bill, or pruning-hook for vines, is fo contrived,
that the part next to the haft, which bears a straight edge, is
called the Knife , becaule of its likenefs to it. That part which is
bended is called the Sinus, or Hollow and that part which runs out
from the bending, is called the Paring- or Scraping-edge j then that part
which is crooked is called the Beak, or Bill. The figure of an half¬
moon, which is placed above this, is called the Ax, or Hatchet ; and
its creft, as it were, which jetteth or fticketh out from it, is called its
Point, or Spike.

Every one of thefe parts performs its own peculiar office, provided
the Vine-dreffer be fkilful : for, when he wants to cut any thing over-
againfl him with a gentle touch of his hand, he ufes the knife j but
when he is obliged to draw it back, he makes ufe of the hollow part.
When he is to fmooth any thing, he ufes the feraping-or paring-edge :
or, to hollow it, he ufes the beak. When he muft cut it with a ftroke,
he does it with the hatchet j or, when he wants to clear and remove
any dirt out of any ftrait and narrow place, he ufes the point.

But the greateft part of the work in a vineyard muft be done, not with
hacking and chopping, but by drawing the pruning-knife leifurely and
gently towards you. For that wound which is thus made, is fmoothed
all at once with one impreffion. For the Pruner firft applies the iron,
and fo cuts what he defigned and marked out. But he who falls upon
the vine by fetching his ftrokes, if he mifles his aim, (which often hap¬
pens) he wounds the tree with feveral ftrokes. Therefore, that pruning
is fafer, and more profitable, which, as I faid before, is performed by

(x) a , the haft, b , the knife, c , thejinut. d , the ferafer. e3 the beak, or bill. /,
the hatchet. the point, or fpike.

gently

Chap. XXVI. Of HUSBANDRY.

i93

gently drawing the pruning-knife towards you, and not by linking
with it.

CHAP. XXVI.

Of the Care of proppmgaV ineyard^ and putt mg it upon Frames,

AFTER thefe things are finifhed, follows (as we have already
laid) the care of propping the vineyard, and putting it upon
frames j for eftablifhing of which, the broad lath or flake is better
than the round pole, and that mu ft not be of any fort, that comes
firft to hand ; for the chief and beft for this purpofe is the olive-tree,
the oak, or the cork-tree, cloven with wedges, or any other ftrong wood
like to thefe. The round prop obtains the next place ; and that which
is made of juniper, laurel, and the cyprefs-tree, is moft approved. Alfo
wild or foreft pine-trees are very proper for this purpofe ; and the ufe
of the elder-tree is alfo approved. Neverthelefs, thefe or the like props
mull be mended and adjulted afrefh, after the pruning ; and fuch parts
of them as are rotten, muft be cut away ; and others of them, which
have any loundnefs in them, muft be turned : others of them, which
are either carious, or Ihorter than they ought to be, muft be removed,
and fuch as are fit for the purpofe put in their room. Thofe that are
lying upon the ground muft be fet up, and fuch of them as ftoop muft
be fet upright. If the frame does not Hand in need of any new repa¬
ration, let frefh bindings be put upon it. But if it lhall feein to want
repairing, before ever the vine be applied to the prop, let it be fattened
together witffpoles or reeds; and then afterwards (as we directed with
refpedl to the new vineyard) let us bind the vine with the flake that
fupports it, juft by its head, and below its arms ; and this mufl not be
done every year in the fame place, left the band cut it, and flrangle the
flock.

Then we will place the arms into four divifions, in form of a ftar,
and bind the tender fruit-bearing twigs or branches upon the frame,
not forcing them contrary to their nature ; but each of them muft be
gently bended, according as it will yield and obey, left it be broken by
bending it, or left the gems or eyes, that are now fwelling, be rub¬
bed off. And where two firm-wood branches are extended over one
part of the frame, let a middle flake intervene • and let the branches
rain diredlly out from them ftraight along the fhelvings or pents of the

C c frames.

i94 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

frames, and with their tops look towards the earth, as if they were lay¬
ers : and, that this may be done fkilfully, let the binder remember not
to twift the young vine-branch, but only to bend it gently, and tie it ;
and that every firm-wood branch which can be presently precipitated,
be placed upon the frame, that it may rather hang down leaning upon
the pole, than hang down from the binding. For I have often remarked,
that Ruftics, thro’ imprudence, put a fruit-bearing branch under the
frame, and bind it to it in fuch a manner, that it hangs under it only
by the willow j which vine breaks and falls down, when it receives the
weight of the fhoots, and of the grapes.

CHAP. XXVII.

What 'Things a good Vine-drejfer ought to avoid or purfue in
a Vineyard already co7ifiituted^ a?td put into good Order.

OUR vineyards being thus put into good order, we will then make
hafte to cleanfe them, and free them from fprays, and broken
pieces of reeds ; which neverthelefs muft be gathered when the ground
is dry, left the earth, being trodden upon when it is miry, Ihould oc-
cafion greater labour to the Digger, who muft prefently be brought in,
and let to work, while the vines are yet filent j for, if you fend in the
Digger when the branches of the vines begin to fprout, and put forth
their buds, you will lhake off a great part of your vintage : therefore
vineyards muft be digged as deep as may be during the interval between
the winter and the fpring, before they begin to put forth their buds, that
they may pullulate the more joyfully and chearfully j and, when thefe
have arrayed themfelves with leaves, and clufters of grapes, bounds muft
be fet to the tender (hoots, before they grow to their full length. And
the fame Vine-drefler, who before made ufe of the iron tool, lhall now
fhake them off with his hand, and check and keep the lhadows within
due bounds, and beat off the fuperfluous twigs and leaves ; for it is of
very great importance not to do this unlkilfully, feeing fhredding off
the fuperfluous fhoots and leaves is of greater advantage to vines, than
pruning them ; for, tho’ this is a great help to them, yet it wounds and
mangles them j that cures them more gently, and without a wound,
and contributes to make the next year’s pruning more expeditious : as
alfo it faves the vine from a vaft many fears, which it would otherwife
have, becaufe that, out of which any tender or green thing has been

pulled.

Chap. XXVII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. i95

pulled, does quickly clofe and heal up. Moreover, the firm-wood
branches, which have fruit, thrive better, and grow ftrong and the
grapes, being more commodioufly bafked, are throughly ripened.

Wherefore it is the bufinefs of a prudent and very fkilful Vine-dref-
fer to confider, and carefully to look, in what places he ought to let
apart firm-wood branches for the year, and not only to pull off the vine
fuch branches as have no eyes or buds, but alfo thofe that are fertile, if
they (hoot forth in number beyond all bounds ; forafmuch as it happens,
that certain eyes bud out with, and put forth, three fruit-bearing twigs,
of which two muffc be pulled away, that they may the more commodi¬
oufly educate one fingle pupil each : for it is the part of a wife Hufband-
man to confider and difeern, whether a vine has not arrayed herfelf
with a greater quantity of fruit, than fhe is able to bear and go through
with the full time. Therefore he ought to pluck off not only the luper-
fluous leaves and twigs, which indeed mult always be done, but fome-
times to beat off her fome part of her offspring, that fo he may lighten
and eafe the vine, overburdened with her own fruitfulnefs. And this
an induftrious careful perfon, employed to pull off the fuperfluous twigs
and leaves, will do for feveral reafons, altho’ there fhould be no more
fruit than what may be in a condition to come to maturity j for, if the
vine has been wearied with an abundant product for feveral preceding
years without intermiflion, it will be equal and juft, that it fhould reft,
and refrefh and recover itfelf j and fo the good and advantage of the
future firm- wood branches muft be confulted : for it is a bufinefs pro¬
per for any perfon whatfoever, even fuppofe he were a boy, to break
off the tops of the rods, in order to check their luxuriancy ; or to take
out of the way the fhoots, that rife out of the hard part, or out of the
ftock of the vine, unlefs it be neceflary to preferve one or two of them
for reftoring and repairing her ; as alfo to pluck off every green thing,
that fprouts out of her head between her arms, and to cut off all thole
barren branches, which fpring out of the arms themfelves, and feize
upon the mother’s nourifhment, and employ and weary her to no
purpofe.

C C 2

Q H A JP.

196

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

CHAP. XXVIII.

How a Vineyard ought to be pampinated ; and how many
Diggings are necejfary for fufficiently cultivating it .

BUT the time for pampinating or pulling off the fuperfluous twigs
and leaves (1) mult efpecially be cholen, before the vine fhews
her flower ; but afterwards you may refume and return to the fame
work again : therefore, in the intermediate days, during that fpace of
time wherein the berries are formed, they deny us accefs into vineyards,
becaufe it is not expedient to move the fruit while it is in the bloflom j
but, when it is paft its puerile ftate, and grown up to its juvenile age,
as it were, or come to its full growth, it is proper to rebind it, and to
flrip it of all its leaves, and alfo to plump it by frequent diggings j for,
by frequent pulverations (2), it becomes more plentiful, and grows into
better plight.

Nor do I deny, that mod mailers of Hufbandry before me were
content with three diggings j of whom Grcecinus is one, who exprefles
himfelf thus: It may J'eem fujjicient to dig a conjiituted vineyard thrice.
Celfus alfo and Atticus agree, that there are three natural motions in a
vine, or rather in every tree or fprig whatfoever; one, whereby it may
germinate ; another, whereby it may bloflom ; and a third, whereby it
may ripen : therefore they think, that thefe motions are excited by
diggings ; for nature does not fufficiently effectuate what fhe defires,
unlefs you affift her with labour and ftudy. And this is the care that
is to be taken in cultivating vineyards, which the vintage puts an end to.

(x) ¥ ampin at; on is pulling off the fuperfluous fhoots and leaves of vines, a word not
ufed by our gardeners, fo far as I have obferved, tho’ they have adopted feveral other 'Latin
words not fo difficult as this to be expreflfed by an Englifb word \ for this cannot be fully
exprefifed without uling feveral words. Pampinus is a young fhoot, that groweth out of
the branch of a vine, and from it is formed pampinarc. This is a work mightily recom¬
mended by all ruftic writers, as very beneficial to vines.

(2) Fulveratio is digging the ground all round the vine when it is dry, and railing the
duft fo as to cover the grapes with it. This, our author fays in his book of trees, cap. 12.
is of great benefit to them, becaufe it defends and preferves them from the fun, and from
fogs.

CHAP.

Chap. XXIX. O/HUSBANDRY,

CHAP. XXIX.

19 7

Of mgr af ting Vines , and preferring the Ingraftments,

I Return now to that part of my argument, where I engaged to give
directions about ingrafting of vines, and preferving the ingraftments.
yulius Atticus has told us, that the time of ingrafting is from the firfh
of November to the firft of yune , till which time, he affirms, that a
cyon may be kept without germinating; and by this we ought to under-
ftand, that no time of the year is to be excepted, if we can be mafters
of a fpray or graft, that is filent (1). I might grant indeed, that that
might be done in other kinds of trees, which have a firmer and more
juicy bark. But, with refpeCt to vines, it is contrary to my honeft and
faithful way of acting to diflemble, that it is too rafh and unadvifed to
allow Hufbandmen to ingraft them during fo many months ; not that I
am ignorant, that fometimes a vine, ingrafted about the middle of win¬
ter, takes hold. But we ought to teach learners, not what may acci¬
dentally happen in one or two experiments, but what, in a certain regu¬
lar way, under certain circum fiances, may, for the moft part, fucceed ;
forr if the experiment is to be made only upon a ffnall number, in
which greater care is a cure for their rafhnefs, fo far I can give my con-
fent. But when the vaftnefs of the work does alfo extend and inlarge
the care of the moft diligent Hufbandmen, we ought to remove all
manner of fcruple.

For there is a contradiction in what Atticus direCts : for he denies,
that it is right to prune a vineyard in the middle of winter, which, tho’
it does lefs hurt to the vine, neverthelefs, for very good reafons, is for¬
bidden to be done, becaufe, in great colds, all forts of (hoots whatfoever
are chilled and benumbed with the cold ; nor, by reafon of the cold,
give they any motion to the bark, fo that it may clofe and heal up
with the wound : and the fame Atticus does not forbid to ingraft at the
very fame time, which he then direCts to be done, both by chopping off
the head of the whole vine, and making a cleft in the very fame part where
the cut is made. Therefore the truer way of ingrafting is after the
winter is paft, now when the days are warm, when the vines naturally
move both their buds and their bark, and when there is no cold wea-

(1) Sarmentum ftletts. This a phrafe commonly ufcd by our author, Pliny-, and other
ruftic writers, to denote a branch or fpray ot a tree, or of any plant, that has not as yet
begun to put forth its buds.

4

ther

x.98 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

ther approaching which may chill and dry up, either the cyon that is
ingrafted, or the wound that is made by the cleft. Neverthelefs, I
would allow fuch as are in great hafte, to ingraft a vine in autumn ;
becaufe the quality of the air at that time is not unlike to that of the
fpring.

But what time foever any perfon (hall fix upon to ingraft in, let him
know, that there is no other care to be taken in trying and examining
the cyons, than what is delivered in the preceding book, where we
gave directions about choofing of cuttings. After he has pulled off the
vine fuch cyons as are generous and fruitful, and the ripeft that he can
find ; let him alfo choofe a warm day, calm and free from wind : then
let him look out for a cyon that is round, and of a firm body, but not
of a fpungy pith, with frequent eyes or gems alfo, and fhort joints or
diftances between the knots. For it is of great importance, that the
cyon, which is ingrafted, be not long ; and alfo, that there be many
eyes in it, from which it may put forth its buds. Therefore, if the
diftances between the knots be long, it is necefifary to cut the cyon to
one, or at moft to two eyes, left we make it of a greater length than
to be able to endure both ftorms, and winds, and fhowers, without
being moved. But a vine is ingrafted, either when it is cut, or when
it is bored through with an augre, without cutting it. But that in¬
grafting is more frequently pradtifed, and is known almoft to all Huf-
bandmen ; this is rarer, and pradtifed but by few. I fhall therefore
difcourfe of that firft, which is more in ufe.

For the moft part, the vine is cut above the earth ; fometimes, never¬
thelefs, below it alfo, in the place where it is moft folid, and moft
without knots. When it is ingrafted even with the earth, the graft is
covered with earth to the very top : but when it is higher above the
earth, the clift is carefully daubed over with well-wrought clay, and
bound up after it has had mofs placed upon it, which may defend it
both from the heats and the rains. The cyon is fo fhaped, that, being
not unlike to a pen made of a reed, it may exadlly anfwer to, and fill
up the cleft, under which it is requifite there fhould be a knot in
the vine, which may, as it were, bind up that cleft, and not fuffer
the chink to proceed further. Tho’ this knot be four digits diftant
from the place where the cut is made ; yet it will be proper to bind
it faft, before the vine be cloven, left when a way is made with the
knife for the graft, the wound fhould gape more than is fitting. But the
graft ought not to be fmoothed more than three digits, and that it may
be equally fmooth on that fide where it is pared. And this paring is car¬
ried fo far, that it may touch the pith on one fide, and be fcraped a little

2 further

Chap. XXIX. Of H U S B A N D R Y. i99

further than the bark on the other fide, and the cyon formed into the
fihape of a wedge ; fo that it may be fharp on the lower part; and be thin¬
ner on the one fide, and thicker on the other; and that, being put into
the cleft by the thinner fide, it may be clofely fadened on that fide where
it is thicked, and may touch the cleft on both fides. For, unlefs the
bark of the one be applied fo clofe to the bark of the other, that the
light cannot fhine thro’ it in any place, it cannot coalefce.

There are more kinds of bands for graffing than one : fome bind it
fad with willows ; fome wrap the cleft round with the rind of a
tree ; very many bind it with a bulrufh, which is the fitted for this
purpofe. For the willow, when it is dried, penetrates and cuts the
bark. For which reafon, we approve more of fofter bindings, which,
after they are bound round the dock, are made draiter and clofer, by
driving in fmall wedges made of reeds. But the principal thing to be ob-
ferved is, that, before all this, the vine be ablaqueated, and the uppermod
roots and fuckers cut away ; and that, after all, the dock be covered over
with earth ; and, after it has taken hold of the graff, it again requires
another care. For it mud be very often pampinated, when it puts
forth its buds ; and the fuckers, which creep out of the roots and fides
of it, mud be frequently pulled off. Alfo that which fhoots out of
the place where the ingraftment was made, mud be carefully bound
up, led the cyon, being moved with the wind, fhould be weakened, or
the tender (hoot be pulled away by the root; which, when it is grown
to any confiderable length, mud be bereaved of all its nephews, unlefs,
by reafon of the penury and baldnefs of the place, it be fet apart and
referved for layers. Then autumn applies the pruning-knife to the
young branches that are come to maturity, and fit for it. But this
method of pruning is carefully obferved in vines that are graffed, that
where there is no occafion for referving a layer, one fhoot be called up
to the frame ; and the other be fo cut, that the wound be made even
with the dock ; neverthelefs, that it be fo made, that nothing be pared
off from the hard wood. The fuperfluous leaves and twigs mud be
pulled off it no otherwife than you do off a young quickfet : and we
mud fo prune it, as to be very fparing in commanding it (2), and put¬
ting it upon exerting itfelf till the fourth year, till fuch time as the
wound of the dock clofes up, and forms a fear. And this is the order
and method to be obferved in Cleft-graffing.

(2) Imperare viti , commanding the vine, i e. fetting apart many fruit-bearing branches’,
and putting it forward to produce much wood and fruit; the contrary to which is prune-
ing ic very near, and hindering it to exhauft itfelf.

But,

200 L J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

Bat, in that which is performed by terebration, you muft firfi mark
out the fruitfulleft vine in the neighbourhood ; from which you may
draw to you a young branch (as a twig ftill adhering to the mother)
and put it thro’ the hole. For this is the fafer and furer way of ingraft¬
ing, becaufe, tho’ it does not take hold the next fpring, yet, certainly,
the following fpring, when it is grown bigger, it is forced to unite
with the other j and prefently afterwards you cut it off from its mother,
and fo chop off the upper part of the vine, that is ingrafted, hard by
the place where it received the cyon. But if you have not the con-
veniency of this fort of cyon growing upon its mother, then you make
choice of a fpray or fhoot, plucked as frelh from off the vine as pof-
fible ; and, after you have pared it all round fo gently, that the bark
only may be pulled off it, you fit it to the hole, and fo you daub the vine,
wboj'e top you have cut off, all round with clay, that the intire dock
may ferve, or ininifler nourijr hment to, a vine of a different kind j which,
indeed, is not done in a graff, which ftill adheres to its mother, and is
nouriflied by the mother’s bread: till it grows into the other vine.

But the iron tool, wherewith our anceftors perforated the vine, is
intirely different from that, which I myfelf have found by experience
to be fitter fot that purpofe. For the old augre, which antient Huf-
bandmen were only acquainted with, did make a kind of faw-duft, or
filings, and it galled and burned that part which it perforated. More¬
over, the burnt part did feldom revive, and recover itfelf, and coalefce
with the former ; nor did the cyon, that was ingrafted upon it, take
hold of it : as alfo the faw-duft, or filings, was never taken out fo in¬
tirely, that fome of it did not remain in the hole. Moreover, this by
its intervention hindered the body of the cyon to be applied clofe to
the body of the vine. We, having contrived what we call the Gallic
Gimlet, for this kind of ingraftment, find it much more proper and
ufeful ; for it makes a hollow in the flock, fo as not to burn the hole j
becaufe it does not make, as it were, a faw-duff, or filings, but fbav-
ings ; which being taken out, a fmooth wound is left, which may more
eafily touch, on every fide, the cyon which is feated in it, when no¬
thing of that flock, which the antient augre raifed, intervenes. There¬
fore take care to have your ingraftment of vines finifhed about the ver¬
nal fEquinox. In barren and dry places, graff the black vine ; in fuch
as are moift, the white : neither is there any neceffity of propagating,
if fo be that the flock is of fo middling a thicknefs, that the growth of
the cyon, which is ingrafted into it, can cover the wound or cut that is
made in it ; except, neverthelefs, that the vacant place of the head of
a vine that is dead, requires another vine. When this is the cafe, one

of

201

Chap. XXX. Of HUSBANDRY.

of the cyons is turned down for a layer, the other is carried up to the
frame, and fet apart for bearing fruit. Nor will it be ufelefs to edu¬
cate fuch fhoots as grow out of the arched part of the vine, which you
have put down for a layer ; which fhoots you may afterwards either
make layers of, if it be proper, or leave them for fruit (3).

CHAP. XXX.

Of Directions relating to Props for Vines , and to Ofiers , and

TVi How- groves.

FOrafmuch as we have already difcourfed of fuch things as we
thought might be ufefully delivered as precepts and directions for
conftituting and cultivating vineyards ; a method mult now be laid
down, for making provilion of props, frames, and oliers : for thefe
things are provided beforehand, as certain dowries or portions for vine¬
yards. Which things if the Hulbandman be deltitute of, he has
no motive or encouragement to make vineyards, feeing all the things
that are necelfary, malt be fought for at a diltance from his own
ground : and not only the price that he pays when he purchafes them,
(as Atticus fays) is a burden in the accounts of the charges of his vine¬
yard j but alfo the procuring fuch things is exceeding troublefome.
For they mult be carried and brought together in winter, which is a
very inconvenient time for it. Wherefore provifion mult be frit made of
willow-roots, and grounds planted with reeds, common woods, or woods
planted on purpofe with chefnut-trees. One lingle jugerum of willow-
ground (as Atticus thinks) may fuffice for binding twenty-five jugera
of vineyard : a fingle jugerum of ground, planted with reeds, is fuffi-
cient for furnifhing frames for twenty jugera : and a jugerum planted

(3) It is evident, as Gefnerus obferves, that this laft paragraph is imperfedt, and things
not lb dearly exprefled as is ufual with this author. But his meaning Teems very obvious;
his defign is to teach when it is necelTiry to ini'ert two cyons into the cleft of a vine. He
fays, it is not neceffary when the flock is of fuch a moderate thicknels, that, by the growth
of one graft, it may fill up, and Toon coalefce. On the other hand, he fays, it is neccflary
to ingraft two cyons into one flock, when it is larger than to be able to coalefce with one
cyon only; or when, in its neighbourhood, the head of fome vine is dead, and it is ne-
ceflary to fupply it with a layer. It is obvious to any who confiders it, that this mull ba
the fenfe of the author, tho’ the firft pait of the fentence, neque eft ulla propagandi ?iecef-
Jitas , be very ambiguous ; and perhaps he mean1, that, when a vine can be rightly ingrafted,
there is no neceflity of propagating by layers, which requires more labour.

D d with

202 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

with chefnut-trees is enough for propping as many jugera , as a jugerum
planted with reeds can furnifh frames for.

Land that is either well watered, or oufy, nourifhes the willow ex¬
ceedingly well ; neverthelefs, that which is level and fat, is not at all
improper for it. And it ought to be turned up with the fpade two feet
and a half deep (for fo the antients direct) ; nor is it of any importance
what kind of willow you plant, provided it be exceeding tough and
flexible. Neverthelefs they think, that there are three principal kinds
of the Willow ; the Greek , the Gallic , and the Sabinian , which mod
people call the Amerine. The Greek is of a yellow colour ; the Gallic
of a rufty purple colour, and of a very lfnall with or rod j the Amerine
willow bears a flender, bright, reddifh-coloured rod : and of thefe you
either plant the tops, or fet them in cuttings. The topmoft rods of a
moderate thicknefs, which neverthelefs don’t exceed the thicknefs of a
hoop for a veffel of two feet circumference, are very proper for fetting,
if they be put down fo deep into the ground, as to be even with it.
Cuttings a foot and a half long, being immerfed into the ground, are
covered over therewith but a very little : a place that is well watered
requires wider fpaces between them, and thofe of fix feet, in the quin¬
cunx order, do very well : a place that is naturally dry requires fmaller
diftances between each, but fo, that they who cultivate them, may
have eafy accefs to them. It is fufficient, that thediftances between the
rows be five feet ; but that, neverthelefs, in the very line where they
are planted, there be empty fpaces of two feet left between each plant,
the vacant fpaces and the plants fucceeding each other alternately. The
proper time for fetting them is before they bud, while the rods are
iilent, which it is proper to pull off the trees when they are dry : for,
if you cut them off when the dew is upon them, they thrive and come
forward but very indifferently. Therefore, in pruning the willow, we
avoid rainy days. The firfl three years, willow-grounds muff be fre¬
quently digged, as you do new vineyards : afterwards, when they are
grown ftrong, they are content with three diggings; when they are cul¬
tivated in a different manner, they quickly decay. For, tho’ great care
be taken, yet very many willows perifh. In the place of which others
ought to be propagated by layers from thofe that grow near at hand,
by bending their tops, and putting them under-ground, whereby what¬
ever is perifihed may be replaced. Then let the layer, when it is a year
old, be cut off from its flock, that it may be nourifhed by its own
roots.

CHAP.

20$

Chap. XXXII. Of HUSBANDRY,

CHAP. XXXI.

Of Broom.

VERY dry places, which don’t admit of that kind of fprig-nur-
feries, require broom. As a band made of this is ftrong enough,
fo alfo it is exceeding tough. You fow the feed of it, which, when it
is grown up, you either tranlplant it when a quickfet of two years old ;
or, being left to grow where it was fown , after it is paft that age, it
may be cut down every year hard-by the ground, after the manner of
corn. Other forts of bindings, luch as thofe made of bramble, require
more pains ; but neverthelefs very necelfary, when there is a fcarcity
of them. The willow, for poles, requires almoft the fame land as that
for withs. Neverthelefs it comes up, and thrives better, in land, that
is well watered; and it is fet in cuttings; and, when it has germinated*
it is fo formed as to grow up into one pole. You muft frequently dig
round it, and root out the weeds, and pull off its fuperfluous leaves
and twigs, no lefs than you do thofe of a vine, that it may be called
forth, and made to fhoot forth, rather into length of branches, than
into breadth. When thus cultivated, you cut it at fartheft the fourth
year ; for that, which is prepared for bands, may be cut, when it is
one year old, about two feet and a half from the ground, that it may
fprout out of the trunk, and be divided into arms or boughs, like alow
vine. Neverthelefs, if the land be drier than ordinary, it muft be cut
when it is two years old.

CHAP. XXXII,

Of Ground planted with Reeds .

HE reed docs not require ground that is paftinated fo deep; ne-.

verthelefs it thrives better when it is fet in ground that is turned

up with the fpade two feet deep: and, forafmuch as it is exceeding
lively, it does not reful'e any place whatfoever. It thrives better when
it is fet in loofe ground, than in that which is thick ; in moift, than
in that which is dry; in valleys, than upon hills or riling grounds ; and
it is planted more commodioufly upon the banks of rivers, in borders
and thickets, than in the middle of lands. The bulb of the root of it

D d 2

IS

204 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

is planted ; they alfo fet cuttings of the cane ; and it is as common to
lay the whole body of it flat in the ground. The bulb, being put under
ground, with vacant fpaces of three feet between each, yields a full-
grown pole in lefs time than a year. The cutting, and the whole reed
laid flat, comes later to maturity than the forefaid time ; but whether
you fet it in cuttings of two feet and a half, or the whole reeds be laid
flat, their tops muffc appear above-ground; for, if they be wholly put
under-ground, they rot intirely. But the culture of grounds, planted
with reeds, is not different the ffrff three years from that of other
grounds before-mentioned. When it is become old, it muff: be trenched
again : and this is its old age ; when either it becomes dry and withered,
and is overgrown with mofs and naftinels, by being negle&ed for many
years ; or when it is fo crouded with reeds, and they grow fo clofe
together, that they grow up {lender, and like fmall canes. But that
ought to be digged again anew, and this may be cut down here-and-
there, and thinned ; which work Hulbandmen call cafiratmg : which
way of cutting never thelefs of a reed-plot is adting at random, and in
the dark, becaufe it does not appear by the ground, what ought either
to be taken away, or left. Neverthelefs it can better bear with being
caftrated before the reed is cut down ; inafmuch as the fmall canes
point out, as it were, and (hew what ought to be rooted out. The
time of repaffinating, and of fetting them, is, before the eyes of the
reeds {hoot forth. Then the time for cutting them is after the middle
of winter is paft ; for it always continues to grow till that time, and
then it receives a check, when it grows ffiflf with the winter-cold. A
reed-plot muff be digged as often as a vineyard ; but its leannefs may
be relieved with afhes, or other dung : for which reafon moft people
fet it on fire after it is cut down.

CHAP. XXXIII.

Of Chejnut-trees , a?id Chefnut- groves.

THE chefnut-tree is next to the oaks called robora (i), and there¬
fore very proper for eftablilhing and firmly fupporting vineyards;
for its nut, being planted in paftinated ground, ftarts up, and {hews

itfelf

(i) Robur , an oak. There are feveral forts of oaks, differing from one another either
in their growth and ftature, figure of their leaves, bignefs and fhape, hardnefs and colour
of their fruit, and feveral other qualities, which I need not mention. Authors differ very

much

Chap. XXXIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

205

itfelf quickly, and, after the fpace of five years, being cut down, it
recovers itfelf, and grow6 up again in the manner of a willow-grove,
and, being made into a flake, it lafts almoft till another cutting. It
requires a black and loofe earth ; it does not diflike a moifl coarfe fand,
nor the broken, crumbling, fandy gravel-flone ; it rejoices, and thrives
exceeding well, upon a hill or riling ground, fheltered from the fun,
and expofed to the north ; it is afraid of a clofe thick foil, and of that
which is full of red-okre. It is planted, from the month of November
during the whole winter, in dry ground, and which has been trenched
two feet and a half deep. The nuts are fet in a row, and at the difiance
of half a foot; but the rows are feparated by fpaces of five feet from
each other. The chefnut is committed to furrows funk three-fourths
of a foot deep ; and, when the fame are fet with nuts, before they are
filled up with earth, and levelled, fhort reeds are fet up at the fide of
the chefnuts, that, by thele marks and indications of the place where
they are planted, they may be digged and weeded with the greater cau¬
tion. As foon as the plants are grown up to have a fiem (2), they mufi

be

much about their feveral kinds and names. - Pliny fays, that, in Germany, there were vaft
woods of the robur ; and feems to think, that it is the fame with what the Greeks call
/fvV, from which, he fays, the druids, a kind of magi among the Gauls, took their name,
they taking great delight in graves of this kind of tree, and performing no religious cere¬
mony without the leaves thereof. Pliny, who, no doubt, was well acquainted with this
tree, fays, that it bears a fmall acorn ; befides which, it produces feveral other things, viz.
both black and white galls, and a fruit refembling mulberries, excepting that they are dry
and hard, in which there is inclofed a fruit like the kernel of an olive. Likewife it pro¬
duces fmall balls or pills, which have a kind of flax within them very fit for lamps ; as alfo
another fort of pill or ball, with hair upon it, which, in the fpring, yields a juice, which
taftes like honey ; as alfo that it breeds, in the hollows between the boughs and the trunk,
certain fmall pills, which ftick clofe to the wood, without any pedicles, which, toward
their navel, are whitifli ; but, over the other parts, are fpeckled with black fpots, only in
the middle they are of a fcarlet red colour. Thefe, and feveral other peculiarities, which
he mentions at large, lib. xvi. cap. 8. are fufficient to diftinguifh this from other forts of
oaks. Father Hardouin is very pofitive, that the robur is the /fi U dyjia. of Tbeophrajlus ;
and that it has no name in the French language.

Quercus is another fort of oak frequently mentioned by our author. Pliny fays, that it
bears both the beft and the largeft acorns ; that of the female is fofter and fweeter than that
of the male, which is thicker and clofer ; that it has the ftrongeft and moft durable wood,
not being fo fubjedt to rot, full of boughs, and has a taller and thicker trunk, than the
other forts of oaks. It feems, that even of the quercus itfelf there are different forts. Pliny
mentions the quercus latifolia, the broad-leav’d oak ; which, father Hardouin fays, is always

freen in the country of Anjou in France ; and they call it le grand chejne, the great oak.
le is very pofitive, that the quercus is the tpriyos of Tbeophrajlus.

(2) Simulatq ; femina Jlillaverint. It is not eafy to determine what the author means by
this fentence. Gefnerus fays, that there is fome reafon to think it ought to be Jlilaverint,
from fiilus a Item or ftalk, a sgemmare from gemma , and germinare from germen, &c. i. e.
as foon as the feeds are fprung up, and have formed a ftile or ftalk, they may be pulled
up, and tranfplanted. But as all manuferipts and editions have Jlillaverint , perhaps the

author

206 L. J. M. COLUMELLA, &c. Book IV.

be plucked up here-and-there ; alfo they may be tranfplanted when they
are two years old ; and there mull be two feet of empty ground left
between each, without any of the little trees upon it, left their being
too thick and clofe upon one another emaciate the plants. But the feed
is planted thicker, becaufe of various accidents j for fometimes the nut,
before ever it fprings out of the earth, either withers or dries up intirely
with droughts, or rots with too much water. Sometimes it is infefted
by fubterraneous animals, fiich as mice and moles : for which reafons
young chefnut-groves often grow bald, and wax thin ; and, when they
are to be replaced, and made thicker, it is better, if it can be done con¬
veniently, that a pole, growing hard-by, be bended in the manner of a
layer, and propagated, than to take it out of the ground, and replant it ;
for that germinates vehemently, and fhoots forth vigoroufly, as having
never been moved out of its own feat ; but this , which is taken up by
the root, and planted again, is in terror for two years afterward: for
which reafon it is found to be more convenient to raife woods of this fort
from nuts, than from quickfets.

The fpaces of ground above-mentioned of this kind of planting will
receive two thoufand eight hundred and eighty heads of chefnut-trees ;
according to which number, (as Atticus fays) every (ingle jugerum will
eaiily yield twelve thoufand props or (lakes j for the cuttings, that are
cut off neareft the ftem, will, when cloven, for the moft part, furnifli
us with four (lakes ; and then the fecond cuttings of the fame tree will
yield two ; which kind of cleft prop lads longer than the round pole.
The culture of digging and fetting is the fame as that of the vineyard.
It ought to be pruned when it is two years old, and alfo when three
years ; for, in the beginning of the fpring, it muft twice feel the edge
of the knife, that it may be incited and put forward to (hoot forth in
length.

The oak-tree alfo may be planted in the fame manner ; but it is cut
down two years later than the chefnut-tree : and, becaufe of this, reafon
requires, that we (hould rather gain time, unlefs mountains, that are
gravelly, and full of thickets, and thofe kinds of earth, which we have
already mentioned, (hall require the acorn, rather than the chefnut.
Thefe things concerning Italian vineyards, and the furniture and im¬
plements of vineyards in general, have I, at full length, and not unpro-
fitably, fo far as I can judge, difcourfed of. I (hall by-and-by give an
account how the provincial Hulbandmen cultivate their vineyards, and
of the culture and management of trees planted for lupporting vines,
both in our own country, and in Gaul.

author means, thar, as foon as the feeds have put forth their ftalks or ftems, and that the
young fhoots fprout out from them, fo that the rain drops from them, then they are fit for
transplanting.

L. JUNIUS

[ 207 3

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK FIFTH.

CHAR I.

YOU laid, Silvinus , that, in the former books, which I had
written to you concerning condituting and cultivating vine¬
yards, there were fome things wanting, which they, who
applied themfelves to the dudy of rural affairs, did mightily
wifh for ; nor do I deny, that I have palfed over fome things, tho’ I
have carefully inquired and examined what both the Hufbandmen of our
own age, and alfo the antients, have delivered to the records of learn¬
ing. But, when I undertook to teach publicly the precepts of Huf-
bandry, if I miffake not, I did not confidently fay, that I would treat
of all, but of the moft part of thofe things, which the vafl extent of
that fcience comprehended ; for that could never fall within the com-
pafs of one man’s knowledge and fkill : neither is there any difcipline or
art whatfoever, that has been confummated, or brought to perfe&ion,
by the genius and capacity of one fingle man. Wherefore, as one that
traces and fearches for wild beads in a great wood, fbews himfelf to be
a good hunter, if he catches very many of them, nor was it ever charged
as a fault upon any man, that he did not catch them all] fo it is abun¬
dantly enough for us to have treated of mod things belonging to fo
diffufe a fubjedt as we have undertaken ; forafmuch as the things,
which are wanting, and are required, as if they were omitted by us,
do not properly belong to our profedlon, as very lately, when our friend

4> M •

208 L. J, M. COLUMELLA Book IV.

M. Trebellius required of me a method for meafuring of lands, he gave
it as his opinion, that it had fo near a relation to, and was fo connected
with one’s fubjedt, who demonftrated after what manner we fhould
paginate land, that we ought to give directions alfo how to meafure it;
which, I faid, was not the bufinefs of an Hufbandman, but of a fur-
veyor or meafurer, efpecially when architects, who muft needs know
the way and method of meafuring, don’t indeed vouchfafe to compre¬
hend the dimenfion of buildings when they are finifhed, and which
they themfelves have difpofed, and put into due order; but they think,
that one thing belongs to, and is fuitable to their profeflion, and another
to theirs, who meafure things already built, and who, by making a
calculation, compute the amount of the work, that is completely
finifhed : whereby I am of opinion, that our art ought the more to be
excufed, if it proceeds only lo far, as to tell after what method every
thing muft be performed, but not the quantum of what it has done.

JBut becaufe you alfo, Silvinus , in a familiar manner, defire, that we
fhould give you rules and directions for meafuring, I’ll comply with
your defire, upon this condition, that you make no doubt, that this is
rather the bufinefs of Geometers, than of Hufbandmen ; and that you
will pardon any error or miftake I may fall into in a thing I don’t pre¬
tend to have a perfedt knowledge of. But to return to my fubjedt :
The quantity or extent of every area is known by a foot-meafure,
which confifts of xvi digits (i); a foot multiplied proceeds to paces, and
attus or furlongs, and clima's , and jugera , and Jiadia , and centurice ;
afterwards alfo into greater fpaces. Apace (pajfus) contains v feet (2).
The fmalleft atlus (as M. Varro fays) has iv feet in breadth, and in
length exx (3). A clima is lx feet every way (4). A fquare attus is

ter-mi-

(1) The fmalleft meafure of length mentioned by our author is digitus latus, or travf-
<verfus> a digit or finger’s breadth, which is properly -J of an inch, and is equal to four
grains of barley laid breadthwife, fo as to touch one another. This, he fays, was the lix-
teenth part of a foot; and the Roman foot, as has been faid before, according to the

inch dec.

Englifh ftandard, is 11,604; and of this foot-meafure they compounded feveral others
here mentioned by our author, to all which they gave their peculiar names, which, when
mentioned, raifed in the mind the idea of a certain number of feet, as pajfusy atlas, clima ,
jugerum , See. to which, 1 believe, very few nations at prefent have, in their own language,
names of meafures, that exactly correfpond. The foot was the fmalleft land-meafure.

(2) The pafluSy a pace, contained five feet; and we are told, that it was fo called a
pajjis pedibus , from the feet extended in walking.

(3) Aftusy as flirty tells us, lib. xviii. c. 3. is the length of. a furrow, as far as a plough
goes before it turns; and is properly tranflated, in Engli/h, a furlong; and, as a determinate
meafure, is 120 feet. They had their ad us minimus^ and their atius quadratus. Our au¬
thor, from Varro , tells us, that the attus minimus had 120 feet in length, and four in
breadth (which words are not in the copies of Varro which we now haye ; and he makes

no

Chap. I. 0/ HUSBANDRY, 209

terminated by cxx feet on every fide (y). This fquare-aBus doubled
makes a jugerum ; and from the two fquare-aBus joined the one to the
other, it took the name of jugerum (6). But the Ruftics of the pro¬
vince of Boetica call this Jquare-aBus , Acnua (7) ; and thefe fame call a
breadth of xxx feet, and a length of clxxx, porca (8). But the Gauls
call a fpace of c feet in areas in a city, and a fpace of cl feet in areas
in the open fields, candetum ; which the plowers call cadetum (9) : they
call alfo half a jugerum Arpennis (10). Therefore (as I faid) two a 61 us
make a jugerum of ccxl feet in length, and cxx in breadth ; both which
fums, multiplied into one another, make twenty-eight thoufand and
eight hundred fquare feet. Then a Jladium (11) contains exxv paces,

that

no mention of this aBus in the iothchap. of his firft book, where he treats of the mea-
l'ures of land). The fquare feet in this alius minimus are only 480; fo that fome late au¬
thors mull be millaken, who make it the fixth part of the jugerum , (jugeri fextans) viz.
4800 fquare feet.

(4) The clima had 60 feet every way, i. e. 3600 fquare feet, and was the fefcuncia of

the jugerum , i.e. x\ parts of it, and 27+, or, with refpedl to the number of fcruplcs in the
jugerum , is parts of it.

(5) The aftus quadratics , or fquare furlong, being 120 feet every way, was equal to
the half of the jugerum, and contained 14400 fquare feet.

(6) Two alius quadrat's, joined together, made a jugerum, which, as our author fays,
from this jun&ion, took the name of jugerum. This fhews, that it is a miftake to fay,
that this meafure was called jugerum , becaufe it contained as much land as a yoke of oxen
can plow in one day; for we learn from Varro , lib. i. cap. 2. that fuch a quantity as this
was called jugum, which was a certain meafure they ufed in fome parts ox Spain-, in Hi-
Jpania ulteriore metiuntur jugis, jugum vocanf, quod jttuBi boves uno die exarare poffunt. A.
wrong reading in Pliny’s nat. hip. lib. xviii. cap. 3. gave occalion to this notion ; and
father Hardouin has, from this place of Varro, very judicioufly corrected it, and changed
jugerum into jugum-, and the place itfelf fhews the corredtion to be juft, becaufe PHny
afterwards tells us what conftitutes the jugerum , and fpeaks of it as a thing he had not
mentioned before. The two aBus quadrati, joined, make 240 feet in length, and 120
in breadth, the fquare of which is 28800, the number of fquare feet in a jugerum.

(7) Acnua. Our author fays, that the Husbandmen in Boetica called the aft us qua -
dratus by this name ; fo that he feems to make it a Spanijh word ; but Varro makes it a
Latin word. It has fo many different readings, that it is difficult to fay which is the true
one. Probably it might have been in Spain a corruption of the word aBus.

(8) Porca , a certain meafure ufed in Boetica , conlifting of 180 feet in length, and 70
in breadth. Porca commonly fignifies the ridge or railed part of plowed land, as lira
lignifies the furrow, or deprelfed part. Probably in plowing that delightful country they
threw the land into ridges of that dimenfion.

(9) Candetum. Jfidorus feems to think, that this is only a corruption of the word cente-
turn, a meafure of 100 feet.

(10) Arpennis or arepennis. This, our author fays, is a Gallic word; and probably
from it comes the French word arpent : but the number of feet in it does not anfwet
either to thofe of the jugerum , or of the half of the jugerum.

(1 1) The fladium is originally a Greek meafure. Some fay it was the length of the race-
ground at Pifa in Elis , where the Olympic games were celebrated, and was 600 feet long,
it came to be in ufe among the Romans. But both Columella and Pliny lay, that a ftadium
was 625 Roman feet ; fo that either the Greek foot was longer than the Roman, or it mrv

Eg be

210 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookV.

that is, dcxxv feet, which, multiplied by eight, make a thouland paces,
which amount to five thoufand feet. We now call (as the fame Varro
fays) an extent of two hundred jugera a centuria (12) j but formerly
it was called a century , from one hundred jugera ; but afterwards,
being doubled, it retained the name, as the tribes ( tribus ) were at firft
fo called from the people’s being divided into three parts, which, being
now multiplied, neverthelefs retain their antient name. Thefe things
it was proper briefly to premife, as not foreign to our purpofe, nor re¬
mote from the calculation we are going to deliver.

Now let us come to the purpofe. We have not laid down all the
parts of a jugerum, but only thofe that fall into the eflimation of work
done. For it was needlefs to infill: upon the fmaller parts, for which
no confideration or reward is paid down : therefore (as we faid) a ju-
gerim (13) contains twenty-eight thoufand and eight hundred fquare
feet j which feet make, or anfwer to, cclxxxviii fcruples. But, that
I may begin with the leaf! part ; that is, with half a fcruple. The five
hundred feventy-and-fixth part of a jugerum makes fifty feet ; that is,

half

be true what (ome authors fay, that the Jladium was marked out by Hercules himfelf, and
meafured by the length of his own foot, which, in proportion to his ftature, was longer
than that in common ufe. It was the eighth part of the Roman mile which confifted of
5000 feet.

(12) Centuria. This is the largeft meafure of land mentioned by Columella , which, at firft,
was fo called, becaufe it confifted of 100 jugera. When Romulus diftributed two jugera
a man to the people, it feems, for diftindtion-fake, they threw an hundred of thefe fmall
parcels of land together, and called them Centuria , every man having his own particular
portion affigned him, which was called Haredium, becaufe it went to his Heir 3 fo that
100 of thefe fmall inheritances made zoo jugera.

(13) In order to underftand the account Columella gives of the divifionsof the jugerum,
it is ncceffary to know, that the Romans ufed to call any integer, which came under con-
tideration, by the name of as , which was a great brafs coin, which at firft weighed 12
ounces 3 and, to exprefs any part of the integer, they called it by the name of the divifion
of the as, which correfponded to jt : thus, to exprefs a man’s inheriting the whole eftate,
they faid he was Hares ex ajje 3 or the half of it, Hares ex femiffe , and fo forth, thro’ all
the divifions of the as, which, confifting of 12 ounces, was divided into 12 parts, each of
which had its own particular name 3 thus -fa was called uncia 3 £ Jextasis , or two ounces 3
| was called triens, or four ounces 3 £ quadrans, or three ounces 3 and f 2 they called quin*
cunx , or five ounces 3 the half of the as they called femis , or fix ounces 3 f a they called
feptunx , or feven ounces 3 f they called bes , or eight ounces 3 £ they called dodrans , or
nine ounces 3 if they called dextans 3 and if they called deunx.

And when they had occafion to mention any fmaller divifions of an integer, they gave it
the name of a divifion of the uncia , of which there Were feveral divifions. I fhall only
mention fuch of them as Columella makes ufe of. And firft they divided it into two femi*
uncia1 s 3 fo that, with refpedt to the as, or integer, the femuncia was £4.. The next divifion
was into four ficilici, or quarters of an ounce, fo called, from its cutting the half ounce,
which was of the integer. Another divifion of the uncia was into fix fextula, each
Jextula being £ of the uncia, and of the as, or integer. The laft divifion of the uncia,

which

Chap. I. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 211

half a fcruple of a jugerum. The two hundred eighty-and-eighth part
of a jugerum makes a hundred feet ; that is, a fcruple of a jugerum.
The hundred forty-and-fourth part makes cc feet ; that is, two fcru-
ples. The two-and-feventieth part makes cccc feet; that is, the fixth
part of the ounce, wherein there are four fcruples. The forty-eighth
part of a jugerum makes dc feet ; that is, the fourth part of an ounce,
wherein are fix fcruples. The twenty-fourth part makes one thoufand
two hundred feet ; that is, half an ounce , in which are xn fcruples.
The twelfth part makes two thoufand four hundred feet ; that is, one
oujice , in which are xxim fcruples. The fixth part makes four thou¬
fand and eight hundred feet ; that is, two ounces , in which are xlviii
fcruples. The fourth part makes feven thoufand and two hundred feet ;
that is, three ounces , in which are lxxii fcruples. The third part
makes nine thoufand and fix hundred feet ; that is, four ounces , in
which are xcvi fcruples. The third part, and one twelfth part of a ju¬
gerum, make twelve thoufand feet ; that is, five ounces , in which are
cxx fcruples. The half of a jugerum makes fourteen thoufand and four
hundred feet.; that is, hx. ounces, in which are cxliiii fcruples. The
half, and one twelfth part, make fixteen thoufand and eight hundred
feet; that is, feven ounces , in which are clxviii J'cruples. Two third
parts make nineteen thoufand and two hundred feet ; that is, eight
ounces , in which are cxcn fcruples. Three fourth paj-ts make twenty-
one thoufand and fix hundred feet ; that is, nine ounces , in which are
ccxvi fcruples. The half, and one third, of a jugerum make twenty-
four thoufand feet ; that is, ten ounces , in which are ccxl fcruples.
Two thirds, and one fourth part, make twenty-fix thoufand and four

hundred

which our author rakes notice of, is into 24 fcripulj , or fcriptula, which the Greeks call
y^.(xy.ct]A. According to this divifion of the uncia , a fcruple is 2is of the as, or integer.
Columella , in his divifions of the jugerum, goes as low as the half of the fcruple, which
he calls dimidium fcrupulum , and is of the as or jugerum.

I know there are other divifions of tfce uncia mentioned by other authors, viz. into 8
drachms, each of which contained 3 fcruples; and into 3 duella , each of which contained
8 fcrupula ; and into 7 denarii. Our author once only fpeaks of a thing being of the weight
of the denarius , but does not tell what proportion it bore to the uncia. But Plin. Nat.
Hijl. lib. xxxiii. cap. 9. fays, that their juft weight was 84 in a pound, which is 7 in the
ounce.

From what is faid, one may eafily underftand all that our author fays of the jugerum,
confidered as an integer divided into a certain number of parts, to each of which he gives
the name of the divifion of the as corrcfponding to it, as halt a fcruple, a fcruple, fcilicus,
fextula, uncia , femuncia , &c. ; and this gives light to any other Roman author uiing the
iame method of exprefling the part of any integer.

What has been faid is more diftindftly expofeid to the eye in the following table, which
begins with the fmalleft or loweft divilions of the jugerum confidered as an integer, cxadtlv

E e 2 in

212 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V,

hundred feet ; that is, eleven ounces , in which are ccLxim fcruples.
Kjugerum makes twenty-eight thoufand and eight hundred feet : this
is the asy or the integer, in which there are cclxxxviii fcruples. But
if the compafs of a jugerum did always fo quadrate, and had, in taking
the meafure of it, ccxl feet in length, and cxx in breadth, the calcu¬
lation of it would be very expeditious. But, becaufe different forms of
lands come under confideration, we {hall fubjoin examples or figures of
every kind, which we may life as formula’s for ouf direction.

in the fame manner as Coluynella himfelf con fide red it, who begins with half a fcruple,
and rifes gradually till be comes to the integer.

The [ever al Tarts and Divisions of the } ugertim mentioned by Columella, with the Number
of Roman and fingiiili fquare Feet each Part and Divifion contained »

The Roman Names of

Scruples

Parte.

Roman

Englifb fquare

the Divifions of the
Jugerum.

fquare feet

Feet Decimals.

Dimidium Scru* J

g

I

5°

48.35

pulum, J

2

5 76

Scrupulum,

I

100

96,70

Duo Scrupula,

2

1

14- A

200

193,4°

Sextula,

4

h

400

386,80

Sicilicus,

6

is

600

580,20

Semuncia,

12

1

2+

1200

1 160,40

Uncia,

z4

i

l 2

24OO

2320,80

Sextans,

48

ft

z

4800

4641,60

Quadrans,

72

72OO

6962,40

Triens,

96

.1

6

9600

9283,20

Quincunx,

120

i

1 2

12000

11604.

Semis,

*44

1

2

I44OO

13924,80

Septunx,

168

i

1 2

168OO

16245,60

Bes,

192

2

T

I92OO

18566,40

Dodrans,

216

JL

A

21600

20887,20

Dextans,

240

£

24OOO

23208.

Deunx,

264

H

264OO

25528,80

Jugerum,

288

28800

27849,60

CHAP.

Chap. II.

Of HUSBANDRY.

213

CHAP. II.

Of the fever al Forms of Lands, and of their Dimenftons (1).

ALL land is either fquare, or long, or fliaped like a wedge, or tri¬
angular, or round, or exhibits the form of a femicircle, or of
an arch of a circle, and fometimes alfo of feveral angles. The mea-
furing of a fquare is very eafy ; for, feeing it is of the like number of
feet on all fides, two (ides are multiplied into one another; and what
fumarifes from the multiplication, that we call the number of fquare
feet contained in it. As, if a place were an hundred feet every way, we
multiply one hundred into a hundred, and they make ten thoufand ;
therefore we will fay, that that place has ten thoufand fquare feet, which
make a third part, and a two-and-feventieth part of a jugerum ; accord¬
ing to which proportion, we muft make the computation and payment
of any work done.

The form of land

o

o

100

10000

IOO

that is fquare.

But if it be longer than it is broad, as for example, let the form of
the jugerum have ccxl feet in length, and cxx in breadth, as I faid a
little before ; you Ihall multiply the feet in breadth with the feet in
length thus : one hundred and twenty times two hundred and forty
amount to twenty-eight thoufand and eight hundred. We fhall fay,
that a jugerum of land contains fo many feet fquare. You (hall pro-

(1) In the old editions of this author, thefe different figures of land, as here placed, are
not to be found ; only the Roman numeral letters, correfponding to each, are fo placed,
as in fome meafure to reprefent each figure immediately treated of, and they are printed
as a part of the text : but whether the author defigned any figures at firft, is very uncer¬
tain ; yet it feems probable, becaufe the letters anlwering to the fame were found in the
manuferipts, according to which the firft editions were exadtly printed.

The laft figures, which reprefent the different diftances to be obferved in planting trees,
fignify very little, becaufe, for want of room, they cannot be made to anfwer in number
to the feveral diftances mentioned by the author : notwithftanding I have added a few of
them, becaufe they are printed in fome of the beft editions ; and they ferve to illuftrate
the thing a little, if any one will obferve the proportions of the numbers.

214 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book V.

ceed in like manner with all lands whofe length is greater than their
breadth.

The form of a

o

Ot

240

28800

240

g jugerum of land .

But if the land be in the form of a wedge, fuppofe it be one hundred
feet long, and twenty feet broad on one part ; and on the other, ten feet :
then we will add together the two breadths, and both fums will make
thirty feet. The half of this fum is fifteen, by multiplying which
with the length, we will make one thoufand five hundred feet. We
fhall therefore fay, that in this wedge, thefe are the fquare feet which
will make one half ounce and three fcruples, that is, part, and
parts of a jugerum.

The form of land in °

the fhape of a wedge.

But if you are to meafure a triangle with three equal fides, you
fhall follow this method. Let the land be triangular, of three hundred
feet every way : multiply this number into itfelf, it will make ninety
thoufand feet : take the third part of this fum, viz. thirty thoufand.
Take alfo the tenth part, viz. nine thoufand. Add both fums together,
they make thirty-nine thoufand. We’ll fay, that this is the fum of
the fquare feet in this triangle ; which meafure makes one jugerum ,
and one third of a jugerum , and the forty-eighth part of a jugerum .

The form of equilateral

3°°

But if the triangular land have unequal fides, as in the figure fubjoined,
which has a right angle, the computation fhall be ordered and made in a
different manner. Let the line of the one fide, which makes the right
angle, be fifty feet j and of the other, one hundred feet. Multiply
5 thefe

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 215

thefe two fums into one another. Fifty times one hundred make Ave
thoufand ; the half of thefe make two thoufand five hundred, which
part makes an ounce and a fcruple, or -fr part, and part of a juge-
rum.

The figure of a triangular field, with one right angle.

If the land (hall be round, fo as to have the apppearance of a circle,
take the feet thus : Let there be a round area, whole diameter contains
lxx feet. Multiply this into itfelf j feventy times feventy make four
thoufand nine hundred : multiply this fum by eleven, they make fifty-
three thoufand nine hundred feet. I fubftrad: the fourteenth part of
this fum, viz. three thoufand eight hundred and fifty feet. Thefe, I
fay, are the fquare feet in this circle, which make an ounce and an
half, and 2 \ fcruples of a jugerum.

round land.

If the land be femicircular, whofe bafis has cxl feet, and the
breadth of the curvature lxx feet, you mult multiply the breadth
with the bafis : feventy times one hundred and forty make nine thou¬
fand and eight hundred : thefe multiplied by eleven make one hundred
and feven thoufand and eight hundred. The fourteenth part of this
fum makes feven thoufand and feven hundred. We fiiall fay, that thefe
are the number of feet in this femicircle, which make three ounces and
five fcruples, i. e. £ part, and parts of a jugerum.

140

But,

216 L. J. M. C OLUMELL A Book V.

Bat, if it be Id's than a femicircle, we will meafure the arch after
this manner : Let there be an arch, whole balls contains xvi feet,
and the breadth mi feet. I add the breadth to the bafe : both make
xx feet. Thefe I multiply by four, and they make lxxx feet : the
half of thefe is xl. Alfo the half of lixteen feet, which make the
balls, is viii : thefe vm, multiplied into themfelves, make lxiv : from
thefe I take a fourteeenth part, which makes mi feet, and a little
more. This you lliall add to forty : both fums make xliiii. I
fay, that thefe are the fquare feet in that arch, which make half a
fcruple, i. e. - part of a jugerum , lefs a twenty-fifth part of a fcruple.

If the land has fix angles, it is reduced into fquare feet thus : Let
there be an hexagon, with lines of xxx feet every way. I multiply
one fide into itfelf ; thirty times thirty make dcccc. Of this fum I
take a third part, ccc, and a tenth part of the fame, xc, which make
cccxc. This mull be multiplied by fix, becaufe there are fix fides,
which, being reduced to one fum, make two thoufand three hundred
and forty. Therefore we fhall fay, that there are fo many fquare
feet therein. Therefore it will be an ounce of a jugerumt lefs half a
fcruple, and the tenth part of a fcruple.

30

CHAP.

Chap. III.

Of HUSBANDRY.
CHAP. III.

217

How many Plants a Jugerum of Land may receive , when
they are fet at the Diflance of ’Three Feet , and from that
to the Dijlance of Ten Feet from each other .

HAVING therefore attained to a right perception of thefe fir ft
principles, as it were, of fuch-like computation, we {hall, with¬
out any difficulty, enter upon the meafuring of lands, of which it is
both tedious and difficult to profecute and treat of all the different forts.
I fhall alfo now add to thefe I have already propofed two different for¬
mulas or methods, which Hufbandmen frequently make ufe of in the
difpofition and fetting of their plants. Let there be a field one thou-
fand two hundred feet long, and one hundred and twenty feet broad :
in it the vines muft be fo difpofed, that five feet be left between the
rows. I afk, how many plants there (hall be occafion for, when fpaces
of five feet are required between the plants ? I take a fifth part of the
length, which makes ccxl, and a fifth part of the breadth, which
makes xxmr. To both thefe fums I always add one, which make the
outmoft rows, which they call the angular rows : therefore one fum is
two hundred and forty-one, and the other twenty-five. Multiply thefe
fums thus: Twenty-five times two hundred and forty -one make fix
thoufand and twenty-five. You fhall fay, that juft fo many plants will
be wanted.

*

*

Mi

*

Mi

Mi

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Mi

*

*

*

*

Mi

*

*

*

Mi

Mi

Mi

* -

*

*

Mi

Mi

*

Mi

*

Mi

*

*

*

*

Mi

*

Mi

*

*

*

*

-*

*

Mi

*

Likewife, if you have a mind to fet them at the diftance of fix feet
the one from the other, you fhall fubtradt the fixth part of the length
©f one thoufand two hundred, which make ccj and the fixth part of
cxx, the breadth, which makes xx. To each of thefe fums you {hall
add one, which I called the angular rows ; they make cci and xxi.
You fhall multiply thefe fums into one another, viz. twenty-one times
two hundred and one ; and fo you fhall make four tjioufand two hun-

F f ' dred

21 8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA, Book V.

dred and twenty-one. You (hall fay, that there will be occafion for the
like number of plants.

***********

***********

***********

***********

In like manner, if you would plant them at the diftance of feven
feet, you fhall take the feventh part of the length and breadth, and
add one for the angular rows, in the fame manner, and in the fame
order, you fhall complete and make up the full number of plants.
jLaftly, at how many feet diftance foever you fhall judge proper to
make the rows, you fhall take fuch a part of the length and breadth,
and add the forefaid units for the corner ranks.

Seeing thefe things are fo, it follows, that a jugerum of land, which
has ccxnfeet in length, and cxxin breadth, may receive, at the diftance
of three feet, (for we think, that this is the leaft diftance that we ought
to make in planting vines) in length lxxxi, and in breadth, at the
diftance of five feet, xxv plants j which numbers, being multiplied into
one another, make two thoufand and twenty-five plants.

Or, if the vineyard be planted at the diftance of four feet every way
between each plant, the row will have lxi plants in length, and xxxi
in breadth j which numbers make one thoufand eight hundred and
ninety-one vines in a jugerum.

Or, if the vineyard be fo laid out, as to have the diftance of four
feet between the vines in the length, and of five feet in the breadth,
the row will have lxi plants in length, and xxv in breadth. But, if
they be planted at the diftance of five feet the one from the other, the
row will contain xlix plants lengthways, and xxv plants in breadth j
which two numbers, multiplied into one another, make one thoufand
two hundred and twenty-five.

But, if you fhall think fit to lay out the fame place in rows of vines
at the diftance of fix feet, there is no doubt but xli vines muft be
aftigned to the length, and xxi to the breadth ; which, being multi¬
plied into one another, make dccclxi. But, if the vineyard muft be
laid out into diftances of feven feet, the row in length will receive
thirty-five heads, and in breadth xviii ; which numbers, multiplied
into one another, make dcxxx. We fhall fay, that juft fo many plants
muft be prepared. But, if the vineyard fhould be planted at the
diftance of eight -feet, the row in length will receive xxxi plants, and

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 2i9

in breadth xvi ; which numbers, multiplied into one another, make
ccccxcvx. But, if at the diftance of nine feet, the row in length will
receive twenty-feven plants, and in breadth fourteen : thefe numbers,
multiplied into one another, make ccclxxviii. But, if at the diflance
of ten feet, the row in length will receive xxv plants, and in breadth
xiii : thefe numbers, multiplied into one another, make cccxxv.

And, that our difcourfe on this fubjed may not proceed in infinitum ,
we may fet our plants in the fame proportion, according as every one
fhall be pleafed with wider fpaces. Let what we have faid of the mea-
fures of lands, and of the numbers of plants, fuffice. Now I return to
the order I propofed.

CHAP. IV.

Of the Culture of provincial Vineyards .

I Have found, that there are feveral kinds of provincial vines ; but
of thofe that I myfelf have known, fuch as hand by themlelves,
with a fhorter leg or dock, like little trees, without any prop to fupport
them, are mod approved. Next are thofe, which, leaning upon props,
are placed upon tingle frames. Thele the Peafants call under-propped or
borj'ed vines (i). And then fuch as, being fenced all round with reeds
fixed in the ground, and their firm-wood branches tied to the feveral
reeds that fupport them, are bended all round into an orbicular form.
Thefe fome call pali faded vines. Vines, that lie flat upon the ground,
are in lead efteem, which, being, as it were, prefently projected from
the ftem when it fprings out of the earth, are lpread and dretched out
at their full length upon the ground.

The way and method of planting all thefe is almod the fame ; for
the plants are fet either in a trench, or in a furrow, becaufe the Hulband-
men in foreign nations are unacquainted with paflinating the ground ;
which indeed is almoft fuperfiuous, and of no ufe, in thofe places,

(i) Canteriatas tiles. Vines, fupported by fing'e frames or yokes, were fo called by rhe
Peafants.- Canterius or eantherius iignifies a gelding j and the word was frequently made
ufe of by th eRot/tans to fignify any thing that fupported another, as the word borfe in Eng/i/b
is applied to feveral things in the fame ienfe. Our author fays, lib. iv. 12. that, to each
vine, he applied two reeds, or fattened old fpear-ftaves hard by them, to which he app’ied
one tranfverfe pole towards the lower p art of the row, upon which the vine might fpread itfelf
rather in breadth than in length and height ^ and thefe kinds of linglc frames they called can¬
ter it ( horfes)J to diftinguifh them from th cjuga or double fiames-

F f 2

where

220 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

where the foil is loofe and open, and crumbles into dull of itfelf : for
this we imitate in plowing , as Virgil (2) fays, which we do alfo in pagi¬
nating the ground. Therefore the people of Campania , tho’ they might
take example from us, who live very near them, don’t follow this me¬
thod of working the ground, becaufe the eafinefs of that foil requires
lefs labour ; but where-ever a clofer and thicker land in the provinces
obliges the Hufbandman to a greater expence, what we effectuate by
paginating, he obtains by making a furrow, that he may fet his plants
in ground that is more loofened and opened.

CHAR V.

A Repetition of thofe Tilings, which have been mentioned by

their feveral Kinds.

BUT, that I may difcourfe particularly of each of thofe kinds of
vines I have propofed, I (hall refume the order before-men¬
tioned. The vine, which Hands by its own ftrength, without a prop,
where the earth is more loofe and open, muff be planted in a fofs or
trench j but, when it is denfer and clofer, in a furrow. But it will be
a very great advantage, if, in temperate places, where the fummer is
not exceeding hot, both the trenches and the furrows be made a year
before the vineyards are planted. Neverthelefs the goodnefs of the foil
muff be carefully inquired into ; for, if the plants be fet in hungry and
poor land, the trench or furrow muft be made about the very time of
planting them. If they are made a year before, it is abundantly enough
if the trench be digged three feet both in length and in depth > never¬
thelefs it muft be two feet in breadth. Or, if we defign to leave fpaces
of four feet between the rows, we reckon it more convenient to allow'
the fame meafure to the trenches on every fide ; neverthelefs not to
fink them more than three feet deep. But the plants muft be applied
to the four corners, after fmall earth has been put under them, and fo
the trenches muft be filled up.

But, as to the fpaces between the rows, we have only this direction
to give, that Hufbandmen fhould underftand, that, if they defign to
cultivate their vineyards with the plough, they muft leave wider fpaces
between the rows ; or, if they defign to cultivate them with hoes or

fpades.

(2) Virg. georg. ii. 184.

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 221

fpades, they muft leave them narrower: but they mud neither be
wider than ten feet, nor narrower than four. Neverthelefs many lay
out the rows fo as to leave all along the ftraight line two feet, or, as is
commonly done* three feet between the plants. But, on the other
hand, they make the tranfverfe fpaces wider, through which either
the Digger or the Plower may freely pafs.

But the care of planting ought not to be different from what I dire&ed
in the third book. Neverthelefs Mago the Carthaginian adds one thing
to this fort of planting, viz. that the plants be fo fet, that the whole
trench may not be immediately filled up with earth j but that the fol¬
lowing two years almoft the one half of it be gradually filled upj for
thus, he thinks, the vine will be forced to ffrike its roots downward.
I fhall not deny, but this may be done with advantage in dry places y
but where either the country is oufy and wet, or the confutation of the
climate is rainy, I am of opinion it ought not at all to be done; for too
much moifture, remaining in the trenches, that are half filled up, kills
the plants, before they recover ffrength : wherefore I think it more ad¬
vantageous, that the trenches be filled up again after the plants are fet
in them ; but that, after they have taken root, they ought to be care¬
fully ablaqueated to a confiderable depth prefently after the autumnal
Equinox j and, after cutting away the fmall roots, if they have put
forth any towards the furface of the ground, to be filled up again after
a few days ; for thus both thofe inconveniences will be avoided, thrt
neither their roots will be drawn up to the upper part, nor the plants,,
which are not very ftrong, be vexed with immoderate rains. But, where
they are already grown ftrong, there is no doubt but they receive great
benefit from rain-water : therefore, in places where the clemency of the
winter allows it, it will be proper to leave the vines uncovered, and to
keep them ablaqueated the whole winter.

But, concerning the quality of vine-plants, authors are not agreed
among themfelves. Some of them think it beft, that a vineyard be
planted at the very firft with cuttings ; others, with quickfets. Con¬
cerning which thing, I have already declared what I think, in the pre¬
ceding books. Neverthelefs I now add this farther, that there are fome
lands, in which plants, that are tranfplanted, do not anfwer equally
well as thofe, which have not been moved ; but that that happens very
rarely. Therefore we muft obferve, and diligently endeavour to find
our,

1 What ev’ry foil will bear, and what refufe (1).’

(r) Virg. georg. i. 53.

Therefore

232 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookV.

Therefore it is proper, when the plant is fet in the ground, whether
it be a cutting or a quickfet, to form it in fuch a manner, that the vine
may ftand without a prop. But this cannot be done prefently ; for,
unlefs you apply a fupport to the vine while it is tender and infirm, the
young branch, creeping forth, will bend towards, and lean upon, the
earth. Therefore a reed is tied to the plant when it is firft fet, which
may defend, as it were, its infancy, and educate it, and carry it up to
fuch a ftature as the Hufbandman allows. Moreover, that ought not to
be very high ; for you inuft check it, and keep it under, even fo far as
one foot and an half. Afterwards, when it gets ftrength, and is now able
to hand without help, it grows up to its perfect (late, by the growth
either of its head, or of its arms ; for of this culture alfo there are two
forts : fome approve more of vines cut clofe to the head ; others of thofe
that have arms.

It is proper, that they, who take pleafure to trim and form the vine
into arms, fliould preferve whatever fprouts forth hard by the fear,
where the young vine has had its upper part cut off, and divide it into
four arms of the length of one foot, fo that each of them may look to
a different quarter of the heavens. But thefe arms are not prefently to
be put upon fhooting forth in length the firft year, left the vine be
burdened during its weak and {lender condition ; but they are drawn
out to the forefaid length by a great many prunings. Then there muft
be left,, as it were, certain horns flicking out of the arms, and fo the
whole vine be diffufed into a circular form on every fide. But the
method of pruning is the fame as in vines that grow upon frames ; ne-
verthelefs it differs in one thing, that, inftead of longer firm-wood
branches, there are left thumbs of four or five eyes : but for keepers
there are made fhort-cut branches of two eyes.

Then, in that fort of vine, which, we faid, was formed into a head,
the fpray is pulled off clofe by the body of its mother, one or two eyes
only being left, which adhere to the flock itfelf ; and this can be fafely
done in places that are well watered, or that are very fat, when the
ftrength of the earth is able to afford both fruit and firm-wood. But
they, who have their vineyards formed after this manner, cultivate
them chiefly with ploughs; and they follow this method of pulling
off the arms from the vines, becaufe the heads themfelves, having
nothing flicking out of them, are neither obnoxious to the plough, nor
to the oxen ; for, in fuch vines as have arms, it happens, for the moft
part, that their fmall branches are broken either with the legs or horns
of the oxen, and often alfo with the tail of the plough, while the dili¬
gent plowman endeavours lightly to touch or graze upon the rows with

Chap. V. O/HUSBANDRY, 223

the plough-Share, and to cultivate that very part, which lies next to
the vines. And this indeed is the culture that is beftowed either upon
vines with arms, or upon thofe that are cut clofe to the head, before
they put forth their buds. Then, after they have put forth their buds,
the Digger follows the Ploughman, and, with hoes, breaks up and
manures thofe parts, which he could not reach.

Prefently after the vine has put forth its firm- wood branches, follows
the perfon who lops off all the luxuriant parts, and clears it of all the
fuperfluous young branches, and fets apart for growth fuch as are fruit¬
ful, which, after they are hardened and become firm, are bound up
in the manner of a crown. This is done for two reafons; one, left the
young branches, being left at liberty to run out in length, fhould creep
and (hoot out, fo as to become luxuriant, and conSume all the nourish¬
ment of the vine; the other is, that the vine, being bound up, may
give free accefs again to the Ploughman and the Digger, when they
cultivate it. But this Shall be the manner of pampinating or pulling off
its fuperfluous leaves and twigs, that, in places not expofed to the fun,
and that are moift and cold, the vine be Stripped naked in fummer,
and that the leaves be plucked off its branches, that the fruit may come
to maturity, and that it may not rot, by becoming mouldy with too
much moifture ; but, in places that are dry and warm, and expofed to
the fun, that, on the contrary, the clufters of grapes be covered with
the Shoots and leaves ; and, if the vine be but thin of Shoots and leaves,
that the fruit be Secured and defended with branches and leaves brought
to them from other places for that purpofe, and Sometimes with Straw.
Indeed M. Columella , my uncle, a man learned in all the illuftrious arts
and Sciences, and the moft diligent Hufbandman in the province of
B&tica, did, about the rifing of the Dog-Star, make Shades for his vines
with palm-mats, becaufe, for the moft part, during the time of the
faid ftar, certain parts of that country are fo infefled with the eaft
wind, which the inhabitants call Vulturnus (2), that, unlefs the vines
be overshadowed with coverings, the fruit will be burnt up, as it were,
with a firy vapour.

And this is the culture both of the vine that is cut clofe to the head,
and of that which has arms ; for that, which is placed upon one Single
frame, or which is reduced into a circular form, by having its firm-
wood branches, which are Set apart for growth and for fruit, bound to
props of reeds Set round it, requires almoft the fame care, as that upon

(2) Vulturnus. The fouth-eafl: wind was fo called by the 'Remans , as fome fay, from a
mountain of that name in Apulia, or from a cown of the fame name, which lay call from
Rome.

the

224 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

the double frame. Nevertheless I have obferved, that fome perfons
have taken long fruit-bearing branches of fuch vines as are palifaded,
or Surrounded and fupported with reeds, efpecially of the Elvenacian
kind, and put them under ground near the Surface, as if they were lay¬
ers ; and then raifed them up again, and fixed them to the reeds, and Set
them apart for bearing fruit. TheSe our Hufbandmen call mergos (divers
or offfets) (3). The Gauls call them candofoccos (4) ; and they put them
under-ground for one fingle reafon, becaufe they think, that the earth
gives more nourishment to the fruit-bearing rods : therefore, after the
vintage, they cut them off, and remove them from the Stem as ufelefs
fprays. But we direct, that theSe very rods, when they are cut off
from the mother-vine, be planted for quickfets, if there be vacant
places any-where in the rows, by the death of any of the vines, or if
any perfon have a mind to inflitute a new vineyard ; becaufe the parts
of the branches, which were put under-ground, have certainly a Suffi¬
cient number of roots, which, being Set in trenches, will prefently take
hold.

That other culture of the vine, that lies flat upon the ground, remains
yet to be Spoken to, which ought not to be put in practice, but where
the conftitution of the climate is exceeding flormy and boifterous j for
it both occafions hard and difficult labour to the Hufbandman, nor does
it ever yield wine of a generous tafle. But where the condition of the
country admits only of this culture, the cutting is fet in trenches two
feet deep, which, after it Shoots, and has put forth its buds, is reduced
to one firm-wood branch ; and this is kept under and restrained to two
eyes the fir ft year. Then, the following year, when it has put forth
young fruit-bearing branches in abundance, one of them is fet apart
for bearing fruit, and the reft are ftruck off j but that which is fet

(3) Mergus is a name given to Tome fea-birds, which dive into the water, and rife up
again at fome diflance from the place where they plunged ; for which reafon, branches of
vines, which are bended downwards from the mother-vine, and fet into the ground, and
their tops raifed up again at fome diflance, are called mergi\ or divert. There is a difference
between this and what they call propago , which properly fignifies a layer, and is bended
downwards from the mother in the fame manner ; for this is in order to propagate the vine ;
but that is put under-ground to contribute to the increafe of the fruit, and is of no further
ufe, as we learn from the text.

(4) Candofoccos. Whether this word is compofed of candidus and fuccus , is not certain.
Perhaps the juice of the grapes of this fort of vine was whiter than that of others. It feems
to be a provincial word, not pure Latin. The branches of thefe very low vines were
bended, and put under-ground, and then the tops of them were eredted, and joined to the
reed, in order to produce fruit. The vine-dreflers thought, that the curvature drew nourifh-
ment from the earth, and fo had a double portion of nourifhment, both from its own flock,
and alfo from the earth 3 and then, after it had produced its fruit, they cut it off as an ufe¬
lefs fpray.

apart

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 225

apart for fruit, after it has brought forth its fruit, is pruned to fuch a
length, that, when lying upon the ground, it may not reach beyond
the vacant fpace between the rows. Nor is there any great difference
in the pruning of a vine that lies upon the ground, and of that which
ftands upright, except that the firm-wood branches of the vine, which
lies upon the ground, which are referved and fet apart for growth, and
bearing of fruit, ought to be fhorter ; and the fhort cuts alfo ought to
be left fhorter, in the manner of knobs. But, after pruning, which
indeed muft always be done in autumn in a vineyard of this fort, let
the whole vine be turned over into the other vacant middle fpace be¬
tween the rows ; and fo that part, which it took up before, is either
delved or plowed ; and, after it is completely cultivated, it receives the
fame vine, that the other part may be cultivated alfo. Authors are
little agreed about pampinating or pulling off the fuperfluous twigs and
leaves of fuch a vineyard. Some deny that the vine ought to be made
bare, that it may hide and protect its fruit the better againft the injury
of the winds and wild beafts. Others are of opinion, that it ought to be
pampinated more fparingly, that both the vine may not be wholly bur¬
dened with fuperfluous, leaves, and yet may be able to cover and protect
its fruit: which method appears more proper and commodious to me alfo.

CHAP. VI.

Of making Groves and Plantations of Elms.

BUT we have faid enough of vineyards at prefent. Now we muff
give dire&ions concerning trees. Whoever fhall have a mind to
have a thick and profitable plantation of trees for fupporting vines (i),

regularly

(1) Arbujlum. It was formerly, and is ftill the cuftom in many parts of Italy to plant
trees in the fields for fupporting vines ; and, by this means, the vines are carried up to a
great height, and fo produce a vaft quantity of fruit. This kind of plantation the ruftic
writers call arbujlum , which cannot be rendered by any one Englijh word I know, fo as to
raife in the mind the whole idea they intended to exprefs by it. There was the arbujlum
ltalicurn , which confifted of tall trees ; and the arbujlum Gallicum , of low or dwarf trees ,
both which our author defcribes with great elegancy, and gives directions how to manage
both the tree, and the vine which is married to it; and, in moll of his defcriptions, makes
ufe of fo many figures of fpeech, varying his expreffions fo frequently, and embelliihing
the whole with borrowed words and phrafes, that it would appear itrange to exprefs always
literally what he fays in any modern language ; fo that it is not very eafy, without ufing
more words than one would chufe, to exprefs his meaning fully and diftin&ly. Both in
this chapter, and in many other places, he makes ufe of a variety of words, which properly

G g belong

226 L. J. M. COLU MELL A Book V.

regularly difpofed at equal diftances the one tree from the other, muft
take care, that it don’t grow thin by the trees decaying and dying ; and
let him remove the very firft that is afflitfted either with old age or boi-
fterous weather, and fubftitute a new plant in its room ; and this he
may eafily obtain, if he have a nurfery of elms ready at hand. How,
and in what manner, and of what kind of trees, it muft be made, I
fhall not grudge the trouble to give directions each in its order.

It is agreed, that there are two forts of elms, the Gallic , and that
which is a native of our own country ; that is called the Atinian (2),
and this our own Italian elm. Tremellius Scrofa was miftaken, when he
thought, that the Atinian elm did not bear feed ; for, without doubt,
it produces it but very thin, and in a very fmall quantity, and there¬
fore feems barren to moft people, the feeds lurking among the leaves,
which it puts forth at its firft budding: therefore nobody now plants it
from the feed, but from the fhoots, which fprout out of the root or
ftock of the tree. But this elm thrives much better, and is much taller,
than our Italian elm ; and yields a fweeter leaf, and more agreeable to
oxen ; which if you feed cattle conftantly with, and afterwards begin
to give them leaves of that other kind, it makes the oxen naufeate their
food. Therefore, if it can be done, we will plant all our land with
this one kind of the Atinian elm ; but, if this cannot be done, we will
take care, in laying out our rows, to plant an equal number of our own

belong to other things, as pet visit, the foot or root of the vine; crus visit, the leg or
trunk; br-achia, the arms or boughs; caput vitis, the head of the vine: fo he calls that part
where it begins firft to fpread and extend icfelf. The Vine-dreffers commonly form it as
they pleafe ; for, when the top of a young vine is amputated, it fends forth feveral ftioots,
two or more of which the Vine-drefTer chufes, and fees apart for growth, in order to pro*
duce fruit. The larger branches or boughs are called the arms of the vine. Out of thefe
fpring other branches, which, becaufe of the feveral fmall twigs which fhoot out of their
fides, refembling fo many fingers of a man’s hand, are called palmites. Thefe I cz\\ fruit¬
bearing branches , beraufe on thefe more immediately the fruit of the vine grows; for out
of them fpring the twigs, or young fhoots, upon which the grapes grow. Thefe palmiter
are cut longer or fhorter, as the Vine-drefler pleafes, referving more or fewer eyes upon
them, according to the ftrength of the vine. We muft obferve, that, at pruning, the wood
or fpray, upon which the laft year’s fruit grew, is always cut away; for the twig, which
immediately bears the fruit, is ftill of the fame year’s growth. The branches ( palmites ) of
the vine, as alfo the fhoots that grow out of the different parts of it, have different appella¬
tions, according to their figure, or the ufe they are applied to, or the place of the vine
where they grow. Sometimes they are called cuflodes , keepers; fometimes prajidiarii or
fubfidiarii, branches of referve, or fubfidiary branches; fometimes pollices, from the figure
they make when they are cut not too clofe, but at a certain diftance from the part out of
which they grow, refembling the thumb of one’s hand ; fometimes they are called refecesy
-which may be rranflated fhort-cut fhoots, as has been obferved in another place.

(2) Atinia ulmus , the Atinian elm, fo called from Atina , a town in Gallia Cifpadana ,
that part of Gaul which lay on the fouth fide of the Fa, of which Pliny fpeaks, nat. hijl.
hb. iii. c. 19.

Italian 9

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 227

Italian , and of Atinian elms alternately: fo we ftiall always make ufe
of mixt leaves ; and the cattle, being allured by this feafoning, as it
were, will more eagerly eat up that due quantity of food, which is
allotted them.

But the poplar-tree feems to nourifli the vine moft of any; next to
that, the elm j and, after that, the afh-tree alfo. The poplar-tree (3)
is rejedted by moft people, becaufe it yields a thin leaf, and not proper
for cattle. The afh-tree, which is moft acceptable to goats and ftieep,
and not ufelefs for oxen, is rightly planted in rough, rugged, and moun¬
tainous places, where the elm thrives but indifferently. The elm is
preferred by moft people, becaufe it both fuffers the vine without any
inconveniency to it, and yields a moft agreeable fodder for oxen, and
comes up and thrives very well in various kinds of foils. Therefore let
him, who has a mind to plant a great number of trees for fupporting
vines, prepare nurferies of elms and afhes in that manner I have here¬
after defcribed ; for poplars are better planted at firft in tops, in the
ground you defign they fliould grow in : therefore we will paftinate the
earth with the hoe or trenching-fpade, which is two feet deep, where
the foil is fat, and moderately moift j and, after it has been carefully
harrowed, and all the clods broken, form it into even beds or diviftons
in the fpring-time. Then we will throw the feed upon the beds, which
will now be of a reddifh colour, and fhall have lain expofed to the fun
for feveral days, yet fo as ftill to retain fome moifture and clamminefs
in it j and we will cover the beds thick all over with the feeds, and fo,
with a fieve, lift loofe crumbling earth two inches deep upon them, and
water them moderately, and cover the beds with ftraw, left the fowls
gnaw the tops of the plants when they are coming forth, and appearing
above-ground. Then, after the plants have creeped forth, we will
gather up the ftraw, and pluck up the weeds with our hands ; and this
muft be done gently and carefully, left the fmall roots of the elms,
which are as yet tender and ftiort, be plucked up with them.

As for the beds themfelves, we muft, by all means, make them fo
narrow, that they, who are about to weed them, may eafily reach to

(3) O/i ulus. Authors cannot agree about this tree, fome doubting whether there is any
fuch tree at prefent as the author here means \ and they cannot fix upon a modern name
for it. But as Pliny feveral times mentions the populus as proper, among other trees, for
fupporting vines, without mentioning the opulus , I think it more reafonable to transfer
populus from Pliny to Columella , than to pretend to corredt Pliny by Columella , efpecially
confidering, that, at prefent, the poplar-tree is ufed about Bologna , and many other places
on the fouth of the Po} for fupporting vines. Accordingly I have taken the liberty always
to tranflate it a poplar-tree, tho’ the text has always opulus. A fingle letter might eafily be
cut off from the beginning of the word, and the other word become the common reading.

G g 2 thf;

228 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

the middle of them with their hand ; for, if they be broader, fuch of
the plants themfelves, as fhall be trodden down, will fuffer damage.
Then, in the fummer, before the fun rifes, or towards the evening,
the nurferies ought rather to be fprinkled than watered ; and, when the
plants are about three feet high, they ought to be tranfplanted into
another nurfery ; and, that they may not ftrike their roots too deep,
(which afterwards occafions great labour in taking them out of the
ground again, when we have a mind to tranfplant them into another
nurfery) we muft dig the trenches, not of the largeft fize, at the diftance
of one foot and an half the one from the other. Then the roots muft
be twifted into a knot, if they be fhort, or, if they be longer, into a
circle, in the manner of a crown ; and, after they are fmeared over
with cow’s dung, be fet into the little trenches, and the ground care¬
fully trodden down all round them. The plants alfo, that are gathered
and taken from the roots and ftocks of the tree, may be fet in the fame
manner; which muft of neceflity be done in the Atinianz lm, which
is not raifed from the feed. But this elm is better planted in autumn
than in the fpring : and its final! branches muft be wreathed or twifted
by little and little with the hand, becaufe the firft two years it greatly
dreads the ftroke of an iron tool. At length, the third year, it muft
be lopped bare with a fharp pruning-knife. And now, when it is fit
for being tranfplanted, the proper feafbn for planting it is from that
time of autumn, when the earth fhall have been throughly moiftened
with fhowers, till the fpring of the year, before the root of the elm
be in danger of having its bark pulled off in taking it out of the ground.
Therefore, in loofe earth, the trenches muft be made three feet every
way; but, in that which is denfe, furrows of the fame depth muft be
prepared for receiving the trees. But then, in a dewy and foggy foil,
the elms muft be fo planted, that their branches may be directed towards
the eaft and the weft, that the middle of the trees, to which the vine is
applied and faftened,and upon which it leans, may receive the more fun.

But, if we have corn all'o in our view, and provide for it accordingly,
let the trees be difpofed and fet within forty feet of each other, in a
fertile and rich foil ; and, in that which is poor and lean, within twenty
feet. Then afterwards, when they begin to grow up to their full fta-
ture, they muft be formed with the pruning-knife, and laid out into
fiorie s or divijions ; for by this name Hufbandmen call the prominent
branches and trunks, and they either lop them clofer, and reftrain them
within narrower bounds, with the knife, or let them {hoot out to a
greater length, that the vines may be fpread the wider, and lie more
diffufe upon them. This is beft in a fat foil, and that in a {lender and
poor one. Let not the ftories be lefs than three feet diftant from each
5 other.

Chap. VI. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 229

other, and let them be (b formed, that the upper branch be not in the
fame line with the lower ; for the lower branch will rub againft, and
bruife the fruit-bearing vine-branch, which is let down from that, when
it is budding, and will (trike off its fruit.

But, whatever tree you (hall plant, you muft not prune it the next
two years. Then afterwards, if the elm receives but very little growth,
the top of it muft be lopped off in the fpring-time, before it lets fall
or cafts its bark, hard by the fmall branch, which (hall appear to be the
faired j but this neverthelefs muft be fo done, that you may leave above
it a (lump upon the trunk three-fourths of a foot long, to which the
faid branch may be bended, applied, and bound faft, and fo, being
turned upwards, may afford a top to the tree. Then, after one year,
the dump muft be cut off, and the place fmoothed. But, if the tree
have no fmall branch fit for this purpofe, it will be enough, that nine
feet from the earth be left of it, and that the upper part be lopped off,
that fothe young rods which it (hall put forth, may be fecure from the
injury of the cattle. But, if it can be done, the tree muft be cut thro’
with one ftroke j but, if that cannot be done, it muft be cut oft' with
a faw, and the wound fmoothed with a pruning-knife ; and this wound
muft be covered with clay mixt with ftraw, that it may not be annoyed
by the fun or rains. After one or two years, when the fmall branches,
which are fprung out of it, (hall have got ftrength, and thrive as they
ought to do, it will be proper, that thofe which are fuperfluous be
lopped off, and that thofe, that are fit for your purpofe, be put upon
growing in a regular manner in the row.

Whatever elm (hall have thriven and come well forward from the
time it was fet, its uppermoft branches ought to be freed from knots
with a pruning-knife ; but, if the fmall branches be ftrong, let them
be fo lopped off with the iron tool, that you may leave a fmall dump
flicking out from the (lock. Then, after the tree is waxen ftrong,
whatever can be touched with the pruning-hook, muft be lopped off,
and fmoothed fo far, as that the wound or cut may not be applied to
the body of the mother. But it will be proper to (hape a young elm
in this manner : In a fat place, eight feet from the earth muft be left
of it without a branch, or, in meagre land, feven feet. Then, above
the faid fpace, the tree muft be divided into three parts in its whole cir¬
cumference ; and let the fmall branches, which muft be fet apart for
growth on the three (ides, one to each fide, be aftigned to the firft
flory. Then, three feet above that, other branches muft be taken, and
fet apart for growth ; but fo, that they may not be placed in the fame
line with thofe of the former dory : and in the fame manner muft the
tree be regularly adjufted to the very top. And, in lopping the tree, care

muft

23o L,J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

mu ft be taken, that neither the thumbs, which are left of the rods
which are lopped off, be made longer than they ought to be, nor, on
the other hand, that they be fo fmoothed, as that the trunk itfelf be
hurt, or have its bark peeled off; for that elm rejoices but very little,
which is ftripped bare to the very body : and we muft avoid making
two wounds into one, feeing the bark will not eafily clofe upon, and
grow over, fuch a fear. But this tree requires perpetual culture, not
only carefully to difpofe and put into due order the things before-men¬
tioned, but alfo to dig round the flock, and every other year either to
cut off with the knife, or bind faft up, and reftrain, every twig or leaf,
that fhall fprout out of it, left its fhadow, vying with that of the vine,
fhould hurt it. Then, when the tree is arrived at a confiderable age, it
muft be wounded near where a branch grows out of it, fo that there may
be a hole made in it to the very pith, whereby there may be an outlet
to the water, which it has gathered in the upper part.

It is proper alfo to plant the vine, before the tree prevails and grows
altogether too ftrong for it; but, if you marry a tender young elm, it
will endure a young vine ; but, if you apply an old vine to it, it will kill its
hufband : fo it is proper, that the trees and vines be equal to each other
in age and ftrength. But, in order to marry or couple the tree and the
vine together, there ought to be a trench made for the quickfet two feet
broad, and as many feet deep, in light earth ; but, in heavy ground,
two feet and three-fourths of a foot, and fix, or at leaft five feet long :
but let this be no lefs than the fpace of one foot and an half diftant from
the tree ; for, if you join it to the roots of the elm, the vine will ftrike
*root but very indifferently, and, when it has taken hold, it will be op-
preffed by the growth of the tree. Make this trench in the autumn, if
your bufinefs will permit, that it may be macerated with the rains and
frofts. Then, about the vernal Equinox, two vines muft be fet in the
trenches at the diftance of one foot from each other, that they may
cloathe the elm the more quickly ; and you muft: take care, that they
be not planted either when the north winds blow, or when they are wet
with dew, but when they are dry.

I order this particularly to be obferved, not only in planting vines,
but elms alfo, and other trees ; and that, when they are taken out of
the nurfery, one part of them be marked with ruddle : which may
put us in mind not to place the trees other wife, than in the manner
they flood in the nurferies ; for it is of very great importance, that
they look to that part of the heavens, to which they have been accu-
flomed from their infancy. But, in places expofed to the fun, where
ihe ftate of the climate is neither very cold, nor too rainy, both trees

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 23r

and vines are better planted in autumn, after the Equinox ; but thefe
muft be fo planted, that we may lay under them, to the depth of half
a foot, the uppermoft earth, which has been well broken and fubdued
with the plough, and fpread and open all their roots, and dung them
after they are fet, as I am of opinion. If not fo, let us cover them with
well-wrought earth, and tread it down round the flock of the plant.
The vines muft be fet in the farthermoft part of the trench, and their
firm-wood (4) ftretched along the trench, and eredled to the tree, and
fenced with rails againft the injuries of cattle. But, in very hot places,
the plants muft be applied to the tree upon the north fide of it > in cold
places, upon the fouth fide • in a temperate ftate of the climate, either
upon the eaft or weft fide, that they may not endure the fun, or the
fhade, the whole day.

Then Cdfus is of opinion, that, the next pruning-time, it is better
to forbear to make ufe of the pruning-knife; but that the young branches
or flioots themfelves be twifted and wrapped round the tree, in the
manner of a crown, that the part, that is bended, may put forth firm-
wood branches, of which, the following year, we may make the
ftrongeft the head of the vine. But long experience has taught me,
that it is much better to apply the pruning-knife to vines the very firft
feafon for pruning, and not to fuflfer them to grow bufhy and wild
with fuperfiuous fprays. But I am alfo of opinion, that that firm-wood
branch, which fhall be fet apart for growth, be curbed with the prun¬
ing-knife as far as the fecond or third eye, that fo it may put forth the
ftronger fruit-bearing branches, which, as foon as they have reached to,
and taken hold of the firft ftory of the tree, fhall, the next pruning, be
regularly diftributed among all the branches of it : otherwise they fhall
be raifed up to the uppermoft ftory, always leaving one firm-wood
branch, which, being applied to the trunk, may look towards the top
of the tree.

And now a certain law is impofed by Hufbandinen upon the vine,
when it is conftituted and fet in its place : moft of them croud the lower
ftories of the tree with firm-wood branches, having only in view a
greater plenty of fruit, and a more eafy way of cultivating it. But they,
who have the goodnefs of the wine chiefly at heart, advance and raife

(4.) Materia. The hard firm-woody part of the vine is fb called. Sometimes it figni-
fies any fhoot referved and fet apart for growth, in order to form either an arm, or any
kfler hard branch, of the vine } and it is oppofed to thofe tender fhoots, which are cue
away in pruning, and are but of a fhort duration. The materia is commonly the arm,
bough, or hardened part of the vine, which puts forth the fmaller branches they call pal-
mites. The author orders all the old fmall branches, on which the fruit of the laft y'ear
did hang, to be cut off, and young ones to be fubfticuted in their place.

2?2 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookV.

the vine to the uppermoft parts of the treee. As every firm- wood branch
fhall offer itfelf, fo they extend it to every branch of the tree that is
higheft, that the uppermoft part of the vine may follow the uppermoft
part of the tree ; that is, that the two extreme fruit-bearing branches
be applied to the trunk of the tree, which may look towards the top
thereof ; and, according as every branch of it has gathered ftrength, it
may take the burden of the vine upon itfelf. Upon branches of the
tree, that are fuller and thicker, let more fruit-bearing branches of the
vine be impofed, the one feparate from the other, and fewer upon thofe
that are (tenderer ; and let the young tender vine be tied to the tree
with three different bindings ; with one in the leg of the vine towards
the lower part of the tree, at the diftance of four feet from the earth ;
with a fecond, which takes hold of the vine by its uppermoft part j and
a third, which embraces the middle of the vine. The lowermoft bind¬
ing muft not be put upon it, when it impairs the ftrength of the vine ;
neverthelefs fometimes it is reckoned neceffary (5), when either the
tree has all its branches lopped off, or when the vine, growing too
ftrong, fpreads itfelf beyond its bounds, and is growing luxuriant.

What is further neceffary with refped: to pruning, is as follows j that
the old fruit-bearing branches, upon which the laft year’s fruit did hang,
be all cut off, and taken away, and new ones fet apart for bearing fruit
in the room of thofe that are lopped off, after you have pared away
every- where round them the tendrils and nephews that have fprung out
of them ; and, if the vine be in a very thriving condition, let the ut-
moft fruit-bearing branches rather be precipitated (6) over the tops of
the branches of the elm ; if the vine be (lender, thofe that are next to
the flock ; if it be middling, then let thofe that are in the middle be
precipitated ; becaufe the uppermoft branch of the vine brings moft
fruit j that which is next to the ftock, does lead exhauft and extenu¬
ate the vine.

(5) Toms imus necoffarius. There is a great variety in the readings of this fentence, which
it is needlefs to repeat. The correction made by Gefnerus feems the moft probable, viz.
tor urn mum imponi non oportet , quoniam vires viti adimitt inter dum tamen necejfarius j but
the meaning of the author is fo evident, that there needs no alteration of his words, except
warranted by good authority. His meaning is, that the lowermoft binding is to be put upon
it, when it is in order to leffen the ftrength of the vine ; which is neceffary when it grows too
luxuriant, or when the tree is fo lopped, that it has no branches to fupport the vine.

(6) Fuecipitare palmitem. To precipitate a young fruit-bearing branch, fignifies to twift
or writhe it gently, and turn it downwards, and bind it to the hard part of the vine. This
Cato advifes againft, cap. 32. caveto ne vitem pr^cipites } but our author advifes to do it,
when the vine is grown higher than the tree that fupports it, and only in the extreme branches^
and fays, that, when it is precipitated, tho’ it draws lefs nourifliment from the vine, yet it
fuperabounds in fruit. Sometimes thefe precipitated branches were tied to the tree in the
hard part, and then they muft almoft wholly hang down ; fometimes they were tied in
the tender parr, and then they did hang down but a very little.

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 233

But it is of great advantage to the vines to unbind them every year;
for they are both more conveniently freed from knots, and they are
refrefhed when they are bound in another place, and they are the lefs
hurt, and grow and recover ftrength the better. And it is proper, that
the fruit-bearing branches themfelves be fo placed upon the leveral ftories
of the tree, that they may hang down tied from the third or fourth
eye, and that they be not bound too hard, left the fpray be cut with
the willow. But, if the ftory or divifion of the tree be at fo great a
diftance, that the firm- wood branch cannot be very conveniently brought
up to it, having bound the fruit-bearing branch itfelf faft to the vine,
we will bind it again above the third eye. We direct this to be done
for this reafon, becaufe that part of the fruit-bearing branch, which is
precipitated, is cloathed with' fruit ; but that which, being tied with a
band to the vine, tends upward, affords firm-wood branches the year
following.

But of the young fruit-bearing branches themfelves there are two
forts; one which comes forth out of the hard part of the vine, which
they call a leaf-bearing Jlmt , becaufe the firft year, for the moft part,
it brings a leaf without fruit. The other is that which is procreated of
a fruit-bearing branch of one year old, which they call a frubluary jhoot ,
becaufe it forthwith produces fruit ; of which fort that we may always
have plenty in our vineyard, the parts of the fruit-bearing branch muft
be bound as far as three eyes, that whatever is below the band may put
forth firm-wood branches. Then afterwards, when the vine is grown,
up, and advanced in years and ftrength, the long rods, or young branches,
muft be conveyed to every tree that is next to them ; and, after two
years, it is proper to cut them all off together, and to tranfmit or carry
over others that are younger ; for, when they grow old, they weary the
vine. Sometimes alio, when a vine cannot compafs and take up the
whole tree, it has been ufual to bend a part of it downwards, and im-
merge it into the earth, and to raife up two or three layers again to the
fame tree, that, being furrounded with feveral vines, it may be the
more fpeedily cloathed.

A leaf-bearing /hoot , growing out of the hard part of a young vine,
muft not be preferved and left upon it, unlefs it is fprung out of a ne-
ceffary place, that it may marry a branch that is a widower. Leaf¬
bearing fhoots, that fpring out of old vines, and in a proper place, are
ufeful, and moft of them, when they are dlit to the third eye, are pre-
ferved, and fet apart for bearing fruit with very good fuccefs; for the
enfuing year they put forth firm-wood in abundance. But whatever
leaf-bearing (hoot, growing out of a good place of the vine, is broken,

H h either

234 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book V.

either in the pruning or bending, ought not to be taken clean away,
provided it have any eyes, becaui'e the next year it will produce even a
ftronger firm- wood branch from one eye. Thofe are called precipitated
fruit-bearing branches, which, being fprung out of rods of one year old,
are made fail with a band in the hard part of the vine. Thefe bring very
much fruit j but they hurt the mother very much: therefore a fruit¬
bearing branch muft not be precipitated, except from the extreme
branches, or if the vine has furmounted the top of the tree. But if, ne-
verthelefs, any perfon has a mind to fet apart for growth this kind of
fhoot for the benefit of its fruit, let him writhe or twift the fruit-bear¬
ing branch ; then let him bind it faft, and precipitate it j for both be¬
hind the place which you have twifted will it put forth thriving firm-
wood, and, when it is precipitated, it will attradl lefs ftrength to itfelf,
altho’ it may bear fruit in great abundance : but a branch that is preci¬
pitated muft not be buffered to continue above one year.

There is another fort of a young fruit-bearing branch, which fprings
out of the tender part of the vine, and, being made faft with a band in
the tender part of the vine, hangs down from it (we call it a firm-
wood branch). It produces both very good fruit, and new fhoots. And
now, if, out of one head, two rods be preferved,. and fet apart for
fruit, neverthelefs both of them are termed young firm-wood ; for I have
above taught you what ftrength a leaf-bearing (hoot growing out of the
ftock of the vine has. The chops-Jhoot (7) is that which fprings out of
the middle, between two arms of the vine, as it were, in a fork. I
have found by experience, that this is the very worft fhoot of all, be-
caufe it does not bear fruit, and weakens both the arms of the vine,
between which it is fprung up ; therefore it muft be taken away.

Moft people have falfly believed, that a ftrong and luxuriant vine
would become more fertile, if it were loaded with many young branches,
fet apart for growth, and bearing of fruit; for the more rods it has, the
more leaf-bearing fhoots it produces ; and, when it has covered itfelf
with many leaves, it cafts its bloffoms the worfe, and contains both the
fogs and the dews the longer, and lofes all its grapes. Therefore my
opinion is to feparate and divide a ftrong vine into boughs, and to dira-
diate and fpread it, by carrying its young branches to other trees, that

(7) Palmes focaneus is a young branch, that grows out in the middle between two arms
of the vine, as it were, in a fork. This branch the author advifes to cut away immedi¬
ately, becaufe it weakens the vine; but, if it has already weakened one of ihe arms, he ad¬
vifes to preferve ir, and to fubibitute it in the room of that which is decayed. You may
fee why it is fo called, lib. iv. cap. 24.

grow

Chap. VII. Of HUSBANDRY. 235

grow next to it (8), and to precipitate the reft of the fruit-bearing
fhoots; and, if it becomes too luxuriant, to leave the firm-wood
branches loofe, and, by that method, make the vine more fertile. But
as a thick, clofe plantation of trees, with vines upon them, is commend¬
able, both for its fruit, and for its beautiful appearance, fo when, with
old age, it grows thin, it is equally unprofitable, and difagreeable to
the eye. To prevent this, it is the bufinefs of a diligent Mafter of a
family to remove the very firft tree, that is decayed with old age, and
to plant a young one in its place, and fupply and fill up the vacancies
of the vines, not fo much with quickfets, (tho’ he may have where¬
withal to do it) as with layers from the neighbourhood, which is far
better ; the manner and method of both which is very like to that we
have already delivered and taught you. And thefe directions concern¬
ing Italian plantations of trees for fupporting vines, which we have
given, are fufficient.

CHAP. VII.

Of Gallic Plantations of Trees for fupporting Vines,

THERE is another fort of plantation of trees ufed in Gaul for fup¬
porting vines, which is called rumpotinum , that requires a low
tree, which does not produce many leaves ; for which bufinefs the pop¬
lar-tree feems the fitteft. This tree is very like the cornel-tree ; yea,
the cornel-tree alfo, the horn-beam, and the mountain-afh, and fome-
times alfo the willow, is planted by moft people for this very purpofe ;
but the willow muft not be planted, except in watery places, where
other trees with difficulty take root, becaufe it hurts the tafte of the
wine. The elm-tree alfo may be fo ordered, that it may have its top
cut off while it is yet tender and young, that it may not exceed the

(8) Tradux is a rod of a vine, carried from the tree which fupports ir, to another at
fome diftance from it, and is either tied to that tree, or to a branch of the vine, which
grows upon the fame. This is done when a tree cannot fupport all the branches of its own
vine. Thefe branches, as Varro fays, lib. I. cap. 8. were by fome called rumpi , perhaps
becaufe they were broken, as it were, or bended from the vine and tree on which they
grew, and carried to another tree. They may be called plajbed vines. A plantation of
low trees for fupporting fuch vines was called rumpotinum , probably becaufe they made ufe
of them for thofe plafhed vines, which they called rumpi ; yet, from the account our au¬
thor gives of this rumpotinum , there is reaion to think, that this fort of plantation was fo
called from their breaking off the tops of the young trees, in order to prevent their grow¬
ing too high.

H h 2 height

236 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

height of fifteen feet ; for I have obferved the rumpotinum , or a planta¬
tion of dwarf-trees for fupporting of vines, commonly fo ordered, that
the flories were contrived, in dry and hilly places, about eight feet, and,
in fiat and oufy lands, about twelve feet jrom the ground. But, for the
moft part, that tree is divided into three boughs, upon each of which,
from both hides, feveral arms are fet apart for growth. Then almoft all
the rods are pared off them at the time when the vine is pruned, that
they may not form a fhade.

If there is no corn fown among thofe dwarf trees, they leave fpaces
of twenty feet between them on both fides ; but, if people are fond of
having a crop of corn, they leave forty feet on one fide, and twenty on
the other. As to all other things, they are managed and carried on
here in the fame manner, as in Italian plantations of trees for fupport¬
ing vines ; viz. the vines are fet in long trenches ; they are taken care
of, and deeded with the lame diligence, and divided into boughs j and
new vine-branches are brought over every year from the neighbouring
trees, and tied together, and the old ones are cut off. If a young
branch of a vine, that is extended and carried from one tree, does not
reach to that which is brought from another, let them be tied with a
rod put between them. Then, when the fruit fhall prefs them down¬
wards with its weight, let props be put under them to fupport them.
But this kind of plantation for fupporting vines, and all other trees
whatfoever, the deeper the ground is plowed and digged round them,
the greater abundance of fruit they produce j but, whether it may be
expedient for a Mailer of a family to make them, the culture of them
teaches him.

CHAR VIII.

Of the feveral Kinds of Olive-trees (i).

NEverthelefs the culture of every kind of tree is more fimple than
that of vines ; and, of all Hems, the olive-tree, which is the chief
of all trees, requires the lead; expence by far: for, altho’ it does not

bring

(i) Pliny tells us, that the culture of the olive-tree was not introduced very early into
Italy ; and that Fenefiella affirmed, that, in the reign of Tarquinius Prifcus , in the year of
the city 18-3. there was not an olive-tree either in Italy , Spain , or Africa-^ but that, in his
time, the way of cultivating it was fo well known, that it had palled the Alps-, and got

into

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 237

bring fruit constantly every year, but almoft every other year, never¬
theless there is very great account to be made of it, becaufe it is Supported
with very flight culture; and, when it does not array itfelf either with
bloffoms or fruit, it fcarcely requires any expence ; but, if any charges
are bellowed upon it, it thereupon multiplies its fruit. When negledled
for feveral years, it does not decay, as the vine; and, even in that very
time all'o, it yields fomething, notwithflandin'g, to the Mailer of the
family ; and, when culture is bellowed upon it, in one year it is reco¬
vered. Wherefore alfo we have thought it proper to give directions
carefully concerning the culture of this kind of tree.

I believe there are many kinds of olive-trees, as there are of vines;
but only ten of them have come to my knowledge, the Paujicm (2), the
Algian (3), the Licinian (4), the Sergian (5), the Nevian , the Culmi-
nian (6), the Orchis (7), the royal olive-tree (8), the cir cites (9), and

the

Jnto Gaul , and the middle of Spain ; and that they planted it in nurferies; and, the year
after they tranfplanted it, they received fruit of it.

Columella mentions ten different forts of olive-trees. Virgil mentions only three forts,
the orchitis , the radius , and the paufia. Pliny mentions fome forts, which our author takes
no notice of. None of the ruftic writers give us any exaCt defcription of the different cha¬
racters of all thefe trees, fo as to enable one to diftinguifh them. They do little more than
mention them by their names, as being then very well known ; and their chief bulinefs
was to teach how to cultivate them.

The olives, as many other fruit-trees, took their names, fometimes from the country
where they firft were known to grow, and from which they were brought into Italy ; or
from the perfon, who firft brought them out of Aft a or Greece , and firft cultivated and im¬
proved them ; and thefe names give little or no knowledge of the tree. Offers of them
have their names from fome diftinguifhing quality of the fruit, fhape, or colour ; as may be
feen in thofe different forts mentioned by our author, of which there are feveral, whofe
diftinguifhing characters we know nothing of.

(2) Paufia. Virgil feems to inlinuate, that the berry of this is bitterer than that of other
forts of olive-trees; and Pliny fays, that they have moft fleih upon them, and, being very
tender, fall fooneft to the ground; as do alfo thofe of the orchitis and radius. IJidorus
fays, that it is very proper for green and fweet oil. But I fuppofe the reafon he afligns
why it is called paujia will not give any great fatisfaCtion, quod paviatur , i. e. tundatur ;
for they were all bruifed, in order to exprefs the oil out of them.

(3) Algiana. Whther this is fo called becaufe it ripens with the cold weather, and does
not fuffer by it, or from the name of fome perfon or place, I know not.

(4) Licinian. This olive has its name from the perfon who firft brought it into Italyt
and cultivated it. It is a callous fruit, of a ftnall fixe, late in ripening, relifts tnoifture, and
yields an excellent oil, and the bed both for eating and ointments.

(5) Sergian. This probably has its name from Sergius Grata. Our author, lib. viii. c. 16.
makes mention of two famous Romans^ Sergius Orata, and Licinius Murena. Perhaps they
introduced thefe two olive-trees laft-mentioned.

(6) Culminea> by Pliny called comminiana , by Cato , colminiana , and by Varro , colminia.
Thefe three above-mentioned are all callous and fmall, and therefore the moifture makes no
impreftion upon them. They begin to grow black in the month of February , when the
weftem winds begin to blow. Pliny fays, that thefe callous olives yield the moft oil ; and
that it is a common error to think, that the largeft olives yield the moft ; for they eafily
admit the moifture, which makes them fwell, and fills them with lees.

(7) Or chit y

238 L. J. M. COLUMELLA, ' Book V.

the myrtle olive (10) ; of all which the berry of the Paujian is the
fweeteft, and that of the royal the mod beautiful, which is rather fit
for food, than for oil. Neverthelefs the oil of the Paujian is of an ex¬
cellent tafte while it is green ; but it fpoils when it is long kept. The
Orchis alfo, and the Radius , are better gathered for food, than for liquor.
The Licinian gives the bed oil, and the Sergian the mod; and, for the
mod part, all the larger olives are fitter for eating, and the lefler for
oil. None of thefe kinds endures either an excefiive hot, or a cold
conditution of the climate : therefore, in very hot places, it rejoices in
the north fide of a hill ; and, in hot, on the fouth fide. But it neither
loves low places, nor fuch as very high ; but rather fmall hills, fuch
as we fee thofe of the Sabines in Italy , or in the whole province of
Bcetica.

Mod people think, that this tree either does not live, or at lead is
not fertile, beyond fixty miles from the fea ; but, in fome places, it
thrives very well. The Paujian bears the heats bed, the Sergian the
cold. The fitted kind of earth for olives is that which has gravel under
it, if chalk, mixed with coarfe fand, be placed above it. The foil,
where there is fat coarfe fand, is not lefs edeetned ; but a denier earth
alfo, if it be moid and rich, receives and entertains this tree very com-
modioully. That, which is wholly chalk, mud be rejected, and much
more that alfo, which is full of fprings of water, and wherein an oufi-
nefs always remains. Land, that is lean, with coarfe fand, and bare
gravel, is unfriendly to it ; for, tho’ it does not intirely die in this kind
of foil, neverthelefs it never recovers drength : yet it may be planted
in corn-land, where either the arbute or drawberry-tree, or the ever¬
green oak-tree, have dood ; for the common oak, even when it is cut
down, leaves roots that are hurtful to the olive-yard, the poifon of
which kills the olive. But thefe things I had to fay to you in general

(7) Orchis , Orchita, Orchitis. In fome editions of Virgil , and in Ijidorus , it is called

O rchades. The firil termination comes neareft to the Greek word from which it has its
name, as Servius , and fome other authors fay, tejliculus , from the refemblance they

bear to the tefticles, perhaps both in their fliape, and hanging in pairs upon their pedicle.
Pliny fays, lib. xv. c. 3. that it yields the moft oil.

(8) Regia, the royal olive, to called from its excellent qualities, or rather from its laze,
from which, by fome, thefe olives were called majorinte. They were the larged of all,
and had the moft flefh; but yielded the leaft juice.

(9) Circites is the fame with Radius , and by I [i dor us thefe are called radiola , as he fays,
to quod oblong# funt in modum radiorum. It is probable, that they were fo called, becaufe
they were fomewhat like a weaver’s fhuttle, fmall at each end, and thick in the middle.
Servius alfo fays, that they were fo called from their long fhape, Vir. georg. ii. 85. xsfxtV,
radius textorius.

( 10 ) Murtea olea , the myrtle olive, fo called from the refemblance it bears to the myrtle-
tree, or fome likenefs in their berries.

I

con-

Chap. IX. O/HUSBANDRY, 239

concerning this tree of every kind. Now I (hall particularly defcribe its
culture.

CHAP. IX.

Of making Nurferies for Olive-yards.

Let a nurfery for an olive-yard be prepared in a free air, in land
indifferently drong, but juicy ; in a foil neither denfe nor loofe,
yet rather in that which is open. This kind of earth is almod black,
which when you have padinated three feet deep, and furrounded with
a deep ditch, that cattle may have no accefs to it, give it leave to fer¬
ment. Then take off from the trees the young, tall, and fair branches,
and fuch as are the mod; fertile, and which your hand can fpan, when
it takes hold of them (that is, about the thicknefs of the handle of any
thing) ; and from thefe cut off the very frefheft cuttings, fo as you may
not hurt either the bark, nor any other part, except where the faw
fhall have cut through : and this is eallly done, if you firfl make a
forked piece of wood to faw them upon, and cover with hay or draw
that part, which you are going to cut the branch upon, that the cut¬
tings, which are placed upon it, may lie foftly, and be cut without
hurting the bark. Then let the cuttings be cut off with the faw a foot
and an half long, and let their wounds be fmoothed at both ends with
a pruning-knife, and let them be marked with red lead, that fo they
may be let into the ground, after the fame manner as the branch flood
upon the tree, looking with its lower part to the earth, and with its
top to the heavens ; for, if it be put under-ground inverted, it will with
difficulty drike root, and, when it has recovered itfelf, and got drength,
it will be barren for ever. But you mud daub the heads and the lower
parts of the cuttings with dung mixt with afhes, and fo immerge them
whollv, that fo the rotten or loofe crumbling earth may come over
them four fingers deep. But they are put under-ground with two marks
or indexes on each fide of them. Thefe may be taken from any tree,
and placed at a fmall didance hard by them, and tied together with a
dring in the uppermod part, that they may not, when danding by
themfelves, be eafily thrown down. It is good to do this, becaufe of
the ignorance of the Diggers, that, when you diall direcft your nurfery
to be cultivated, either with fpades, hoes, or farcies, the cuttings, which
you have fet, may not be hurt.

Some

240 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookV.

Some think it better to form their nurfery with eyes, and to difpofe
or fet them in like manner regularly upon a line marked out with a
cord ; but both the one and the other ought to be planted after the
vernal Equinox, and the nurfery ought to be very frequently hoed the
firft year. The next and following years, now when the fmall roots
of the plants have gathered drength, it ought to be cultivated with
fpades j but it will be proper to abdain from pruning for two years, and
that the third year two fmall branches be left upon each plant, and the
nurfery frequently hoed. The fourth year the weaked of the two
branches mud be cut oft. The little trees, being thus cultivated, are
fit, the fifth year, to be tranfplanted. But, in lands that are dry, and
not at all oufy, the plants are beft fet in the olive-yards in autumn ; but,
in fuch lands as are rich and moid, in the fpring-time, a little before
they bud. And trenches of four feet are prepared for them a year
before : or, if fo much time is not allowed them, let draw be burnt
in the trenches, that the fire may make them loofe and crumbling,
which the fun and the hoar-frod ought to have done.

In ground that is fat, and fit for corn, the lead fpace between the
rows ought to be fixty feet on one fide, and forty on the other ; but
in that which is lean, and not fit for corn, twenty-five feet. But it is
proper, that the rows be diredted and turned towards the wed, that
they may be refredied with the fummer breezes blowing freely through
them. But the little trees themfelves may be tranfplanted in this man¬
ner : Before you pull up the little tree, mark with vermilion that part
of it, which looks to the fouth, that it may be fet in the fame manner
it was in the nurfery ; then that the fpace of one foot be left to the
little tree all round it, and fo the plant be digged up with its own turf;
and, that the faid turf may not fall into pieces in taking it out, you
mud weave fmall twigs of rods, and join them to one another, and
apply them to the lump of earth that is taken out, and bind it fo with
the twigs, that the earth, being preffed fad together, may be kept, as
it were, diut up clofe within them. Then, having digged up the
lower part, you mud move the lump gently, and bind it with the rods,
which you have put under it, and fo carry the plant from the one place
to the other. And, before you fet it, you mud dig the bottom of the
trench with hoes : then put earth into it, which has been well wrought
and broken with the plough, (provided neverthelefs, that the upper
ground be fat) and fo drew feeds of barley under it ; and, if there be
water danding in the trenches, it mud be all drawn out before the
trees be put down into them. Then you mud throw fmall dones into
them, or gravel mixt with fat earth ; and, after the plants arc fet, the

ddes

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 241

Tides of the trench muff he pared all round, and fome dung put in be¬
tween them. But if it does not fuit to remove the plant with its own
earth, then it is heft to ftrip the flock of all its twigs and leaves, and,
having fmoothed its wounds, and daubed them with dung and allies, to
fet it in the trench or furrow.

But a trunk or flock, which is as thick as one’s arm, is fitter for
tranfplanting • alfo that which is of a much larger and ftronger growth,
may be tranfplanted, which it is proper fhould be fo fet, that if it be
in no danger from the cattle, very little may appear above the trench ;
for it thrives the better, and puts forth its leaves more joyfully. Ne-
verthelefs, if the incurfion of cattle cannot be otherwife prevented,
the flock muft be placed higher, that it may be fecure from the injury
of the cattle. Alfo the plants muft be watered, when droughts come
on, and they muft not be touched with a knife till two years are ex¬
pired. And they ought to be fo lopped at firft, that the fingle flalk
or ftem may exceed the depth of the greateft trench (i), that after¬
wards, in ploughing, the ox may not hurt his haunches, or any other-
part of his body.

It is alfo bell to fence the plants all round with pales, when they
are firft planted, and then to divide the olive-yard, now it is confti-
tuted and finifhed, into two parts, which may be cloathed with fruit
every other year by turns. For the olive-tree does not produce fruit
in great plenty, two years fucceffively. When the land that lies under
it is not fown, the tree puts forth fmall (hoots ; when it is replenilhed
with feeds, it brings forth fruit : fo the olive-yard, being thus divided,
brings an equal income every year. But it ought tobe plowed twice
every year at leaft, and digged deep all round with hoes. For, after
the Solftice, when the earth gapes with the fervent heats, care muft
be taken, that the fun may not penetrate thro* the chinks to the roots
of the trees. After the autumnal Equinox, the trees muft be fo ab-
laqueated, that, if the olive-tree be upon a declivity, furrows may be
drawn from the higher part, which may convey the muddy water to
the flock of the tree. Then all the young (hoots, fprung out of the
lower part of the tree, muft be extirpated yearly, and every third year
the olive-trees muft be nourilhed with dung (2) j and the olive-yard

muft

( 1) Simplex flilus altitudincm maximi ferobis exetdat. Gefncrus is of opinion, that it
Our it ro be bm>is inftead of ferobis , which is not improbable ; and then the meaning of
•roor is, that the ftem ought to be higher than the higheft ox, that he may not hurt
L •"h in plowing.

V tertio quoque fimo vel. This fentence feems to be imperfect ; fomething or
.‘with the olive-tree ^yas nourifhed, is wanting ; probably, it is amurca, the

I i lees

24-2 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

mail be dunged in the fame manner I propofed in the fecond book.
Neverthelefs, care muft be taken of the corns.

But if you have only the doing fervice to the trees themfelves, which
you have planted, in view, fix pounds of goats dung, and a lingle mo-
dim of dry dung (3), or one congius of lees of oil, ought to be thrown
into the roots of each of them in autumn, that the dung being throughly
mixed with it, it may warm the roots of the olive-tree in winter. Lees
of oil mult be poured into them when they are ftrong, and in a thriv¬
ing condition ; for if worms, or other animals, have got into them,
during winter, they are killed by this medicament. Alfo for the moft
part, both in dry and moift places, trees are infefted with mofs ; and,
unlefs you cut it off with an iron tool, the olive-tree will neither pro¬
duce fruit nor leaves in abundance. Moreover, the olive-yard muff
be pruned alfo, after feveral years intermiflion : for it is proper to
remember the old proverb, That he who plows his olive-yard , ajks
fruit ; he that dungs it, begs and intreats it ; but he who lops it, forces
it. Neverthelefs, it will be fufficient to do this every eighth year, left
the fruit-bearing branches be cut off from time to time.

It often happens alfo, that, tho’ the trees thrive mighty well, yet
they produce no fruit. It is proper, that thefe be bored with a Gallic
augre, and foa green graft, or flip of a wild olive-tree be put into the
hole j thus the tree, being as it were impregnated with fruitful feed,
becomes more fertile. But alfo, without laying open the roots, it muft
be aflifted with lees of oil, wherein there is no fait, and with hogs-ftale :
or our own old urine, of both which a certain quantity is obferved.
For one urn of it will be abundantly enough for the greateft tree, if
it be mixed with water. Alfo, thro’ the badnefs of the foil, olive-trees
ufe to deny their fruit ; which thing we may thus remedy : We muft
ablaqueate them very deep all round ; then we muft put more or lefs
lime round them, according to the bignefs of the tree ; but the leaft
tree requires a modius of it. If this remedy has no effedt, we muft
have recourfe to ingrafting as the only refuge. But after what manner
the olive-tree muft be ingrafted, we fhall afterwards declare. Some¬
times alfo, in an olive-tree, one branch thrives fomewhat better than
the reft ; and, unlefs you cut this off, the whole tree will languish. What
has been thus far faid concerning olive-yards, is fufficient. It remains

lees of oil; which, in other places, our author, as alfo Varro and Palladius , recommend,
as of very great benefit to olive-trees.

(3) Palladius , who borrows moft things from Columella , when fpeaking of this article,
inftead of fiercoris fed, as in Columella , has a tier is viodii Jinguli, a modius of afhes to
each of them.

to

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 243

to give Tome account of the way of managing pomiferous trees, con¬
cerning which we (hall give directions in what follows.

CHAP. X.

Of pomiferous Trees.

YOU mud inclofe and fence all round the place for an orchard, be¬
fore you fet the plants, either with walls, or an hedge, or with
a iteep ditch, that it may refufe a paffage not only to cattle, but alfo
to men : becaufe if their tops be often handled by men, or gnawn and
browfed by the cattle, the plants can never arrive at their due growth.
But it is neceffary to range the trees according to their feveral kinds ;
and efpecially that the weak be not oppreffed by the lfronger, becaufe
it is neither equal to it in ftrength nor bignefs, and it grows up in an
unequal fpace of time. Earth that is fit for vines, is alfo proper for
trees. Dig the trench one year before you refolvc to fet your plants ;
fo it will be macerated with the fun and the rains ^ and what you fet
in it will foon take root. But if you have a mind both to make the
trench, and plant the trees, the fame year, dig the trenches two
months before at lead:, and afterwards warm them by burning draw
in them ; and the broader and more open you fhall make them, the
better and the greater plenty of fruit you fhall gather. But let the
trench be made like an oven or furnace, the bottom of which is wider
than the upper part, that the roots may be at more liberty to extend
themfelves on every fide, and that lefs cold in winter, and lefs heat in
fummer, may penetrate thro’ its narrow mouth ; and alfo, that in
doping places the earth, which is gathered into it, may not be wafhed
away by the rains.

Plant the trees thin, and at a confiderable didance, that when they
grow, they may have fpace wherein they may extend their branches :
for, if you plant them thick, you can neither fow any thing below
them, neither will they themfelves be fruitful, unlefs you pull up
dome of them here-and-there, and thin them. Therefore it is proper
to leave forty, or at lead thirty feet between the rows. Chul'e and
gather the plants as thick at lead as the handle of a prong, draight,
iinooth, tall, without blotches or gafhes, and with the bark found
and intire. Thele will take root well and fpeedily. If you take
them off from old branches, chufe them of thofe alfo which bring

I i 2 good

2+i- L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

good fruit, and in great plenty, every year ; and rather thofe which arc
expofed to the fun, than thofe which are inclofed, and furrounded with
fhades, branches, and other plants. But, before you tranfplant the little
trees, obferve what winds they were before expofed to, and afterwards
put to your hands, that you may tranfplant them from a Hoping and
dry land to that which is moiff. Plant that which is three-forked,
preferably to any other : let it ftand three feet above-ground at lead.
If you have a mind to place two or three little trees together in the
fame trench, take care that they touch not one another j becaufe by
mutual contadl they will, either rot together, or perifh by the worms.
When you fet the plants, put down into the bottom of the trench,
both on the right and left, bundles of fprays, of the thicknefs of one’s
arm, fo as they may appear a little above the ground ; by which you
may with little labour adminifter and convey water to their roots in
fummer.

Plant trees and plants of trees with roots in autumn, that is, about
the firffc and fifteenth of October : in the beginning of the fpring fet
them before the trees put forth their buds (i). And, that the moth-
worm may not be troublefome to fig-tree-plants, put down into the
bottom of the ditch a cutting of the maftich-tree, with its top inverted.
Plant not the fig-tree during the colds : it loves places expofed to the
fun, that are full of final! ftones, and gravelly, and fometimes it loves
rocky places. This kind of tree foon grows ftrong, if you make the
trenches large, open, and wide. The feveral kinds of fig-trees, tho’
they differ, and are unlike, in their tafie, habit, form, and make, are
planted after one manner, but with due regard to the difference of
land. In cold and watery places, plant the early-ripe fig-trees in autumn,
that you may gather the fruit off them before the rains come on. Plant
winter fig-trees in warm places : but if you fhall have a mind to make
a fig-tree late in ripening, tho’ it is not fo naturally, then fhake off
its unripe figs, or the fruit which it firft produces, it will again pro¬
duce a fecond fruit, which it will defer ripening till winter. Some¬
times alfo it is an advantage to cut off with a knife the uppermoft tops
of the fig-tree, after they have begun to put forth their leaves : fo the

(i) Arbor es ac femina cum radicibus autumno ferito ; primo vere, antequam germinent
arbores , deponito. Pontedera thinks that this fentence is imperfedt, and that it is not to be
underftood, that trees fhould be planted in the fpring, but cuttings and branches, as appears
by the author’s book de arboribus \ and therefore tale as and ravios ought to be put before
iere. Others are for putting alter as before vere ; and, as Gefnerus fays, it is very likely,
that the author, in the laft period of the fentence, fpcaks of fome other kind of plants •with -
out roots.

trees

Chap. X. .Of H U S B A N D R Y. 245

trees become firmer, and more fertile} and it will always be proper,, as
loon as the fig-trees lhall have begun to put forth leaves, to dilute and
difl'olve okre in lees of oil, and pour it with human dung about their
roots. This makes the fruit more plentiful, and the fluffing and pulp
of the fig fuller and better. But we mud chiefly plant the Livian (2),
African , Chalcidian (3), Lydian { 4), Callijlruthian (5), Topi an (6),
Rhodian , Libyan (7), and winter fig-trees 3 alfo all thofe that bear a
floret twice or thrice in a year (8).

(2) Ficus Livian a. Fig-trees, as Fveral other fruit-trees mentioned by Columella , have
for the moft part their names from the places from which they were firft brought, or from
the perfons who firft brought them into Italy, and cultivated them, or were mighty fond
of them. Thus the Livian fig-tree, they fay, had its name from Livia, wife of the Em¬
peror Augujlus : flie made but a bad ufe of her favourite fig s, if ic be true, as fire is
charged, that fhe poifoned her husband with them.

(3) Chalcidict , from Chalcis , a city in Euboea, now called Negroponte, of which Pliny
fays there mere two forts , one black , the other white.

(4.) Lydia. The Lydian fig was of a purple colour, as Pliny fays. Columella in his
tenth book fays, that it had a painted back, & piffo Lydia tergo.

(5) Calliflruthia , called pajfari.e , or rather pajferaria, probably becaufe fparrows fed"
greedily upon them. Pliny fays, that they were of an excellent tafte, but the coldeft of
all figs. Columella , in his tenth book, mentions this fig, & calliftruthis rofeo qua femine
ridet. When it was laid open, it feemed to fmile with its bright, reddifh, rofe-coloured
feeds.

(6) Sulca , Topi a. Thefe two kinds of fig-trees are mentioned neither by Pliny, ncr
Varro, nor Athenaus 3 nor does our author mention them in his tenth book, where he men¬
tions moft of the other forts. Pontedera thinks, that Topia ought to be read Chi a, which
were a fort of fig-trees firft brought from the ifland of Chios. The Clot an fig was in great
efteem, as feveral authors teftify. Martial fays, it was of a pungent tafte, and pleafed him
much. Columella mentions it in his tenth book, which makes it probable he would not
have omitted it here, where he enumerates the feveral forts of fig-trees. Whether Sulca be
a corruption of Marifca, is very uncertain. Both Cato and Pliny mention the Marifcasi
fig, as alfo our author, in his tenth book. It was a large fat fig, not agreeable to tho
tafte, rather fit to be preferved, than to be eaten green. As the Chian and MariJ'can figs
were fo well known, and fo often mentioned, and the Topi a and Sulca are obfeure and
uncertain, it is probable, that Columella intended the firft, and that the laft are corrupt
readings, of which no account can be given.

(7) Libyca. Columella here mentions thefe as different from the African 3 fo that father
llardouin feems to be miftaken, when he fays, Was vocat Columella Africanas. Perhaps
Pliny, who does not mention them under this name, looked upon them as the fame with
the Alexandrian, which he fays were black, and bad a white chanel or clifr, candicante
rima ; by which it is probable he meant a hollow or chanel that ran lengthwife round
the fig, and is what Columella means, when he calls it feiffa Libyjfa 3 for when, thro’ over-
ripenefs, figs begin to open, the cleft or opening at firft will appear whitifh in them all 3
fo that the candicans rima , probably, was a mark upon the outfide appearing like a cur,
which diftinguifhed this from other forts. Father Hardouin explains it of its being white
when it opens 3 cum hiat, albet.

(8) Biferay trifera, flofeuli. Pliny, in his Nat. Hifi. lib.xv. cap. 18. fays, that fome of
the Chalcidian fig-trees bear fruit thrice a year } and lib. xvi. cap. 25. fays, that fig-trees
have no flower or blofTom, as fome others alfo aflert. So that by flofculus here, probably,
the author means, the firft breaking out or appearance of the young fruit.

About

246 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book V.

About the firft of February plant the almond-tree, which begins to
bud the firft of any : it requires hard, warm, dry land. For, if you
plant the almond in places of different qualities, for the moil part it
rots. Before you put the nut into the ground, fteep it in honey-
water, not too fvveet : fo, when it is grown up, it will yield fruit of a
more agreeable taffe, and, in the mean time, it will put forth its leaves
the better, and the more fpeedily. Place three nuts in a triangle, that
a nut may be at lead: four fingers breadth difiant from a nut, and that
two of them look towards the weft (9) : but each nut puts forth one
root, and creeps forth with a fingle ftalk. When the root reaches to
the bottom of the trench, it is checked by the hardnefs of the ground,
and bended back again ; and, from the fummit or top of the two
branches the root forms, it fends out other roots (10).

You may make an almond, and a filberd, become a Farentinian (1 1)
nut-tree in this manner. Into the trench, wherein you defign to plant your
nuts, put fmall earth about half a foot deep, and there let a plant of
fennel-giant. When the fennel-giant is fprung up, cleave it, and in
its pith hide an almond or filberd-nut without a (hell, and fo put it
under-ground. Do this before the firft of March , or alfo between
the feventh and fifteenth days of the faid month. At the fame time
you muft plant the walnut, the pine, and the chefnut-trees.

It is right to plant the pomegranate from the fame time to the firft
of April , which, if it produces acid, or not fo fweet fruit as you defire,
may be corrected in this manner. Water the roots of it with ftale
urine mixed with human and hogs dung. This will both make the
tree fertile, and the firft years it makes the fruit of a winy tafte, and,
after five years, makes it fweet, and without any woody fubftance.
We have diftolved a very little lafer wort-juice in wine, and fo have

(9) Et anceps in favonium fpeftet. The three nuts were to be placed in a triangle,
not equilateral, as Gefnerus thinks, and that the top of the triangle is what the author
means by aveeps ; but it is more probable, that Columella's meaning is, that the three nuts
were to be fo placed, as that two of them might incline towards the weft.

(xo) Et ex Jimmo duum ramorum ambas radices emit tit . In his book de arboribus , it is
extenfa in ntodum ramorum alias radices emit tit ; and not ambas-, which, as Pontedera thinks,
is probably the true reading here. Gefnerus thinks it ought to be read & ex fe in modum
ramorum amplas radices emit tit. Perhaps the two branches the root forms after its bend¬
ing may be properly enough expreffed by ambas , i. e. it forms both its roots from the
bending it made of the firft root ; but it is more probable, that alias is the true reading,
feeing the bending of a root will naturally put forth other roots, as, in vines, any bending
will put forth young fhoots.

(11) Tarentina nux. A Tarentinian nut was fo foft, that it could fcarcely be handled
wi'hout breaking, as Macrobius fays. Pliny fays, that there were two forts of them j one
with- a brittle fhellj and the other harder. They were common about Tarentum.

anointed

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 247

anointed the uppermoft tops of the tree. This did corredt the acidity
of the apples. If, when you plant the tree, you place three flones at
the very root of it, they will remedy and prevent the burfling of pome¬
granates upon the tree. But, if you have a tree already planted, fow
iquills hard by the root of the tree. This may be prevented by an¬
other method alfo : when the apples are almofl ripe, before they burft,
twill the lmall branches upon which they hang. In the fame manner
they will keep even a. whole year without fpoiling.

Plant the pear-tree (12) in autumn, fo that there may be at lead:
twenty-five days to come before winter. And that it may be fruitful,
when it fball come to its full growth, lay its roots open to a confider-
able depth, and cleave the Hock hard by the very root, and drive into
the cleft a wedge of torch-pine-tree, and there leave it : then, after
you have covered the roots of the tree, by replacing the earth, throw
allies upon the earth. But we mull take care to plant our orchards
with the moll generous pears that can be found. Thefe are, the
Crujiuminian (13), the Royal (14), the Sigitinian (15), the Tarenti -
nian (id), which are called Syrian, the ‘Purple-coloured. , the Su¬
perb (17), the Barley -pear (18), thsAnician (15?), the Navi an, the

(12) The fame thing may be laid of pear-trees and apple-trees, as was faid of vines
and olives, that the antient ruftic writers give us but very little infight into their different
characters. It is probable, that moil of them were fo well known, that they thought it
needlefs to defcribe them ; and that their bulinefs was chiefly to teach how to cultivate
them. The greateft part of them had their names from men who either brought them
into Italy, or took great delight in them, and cultivated and improved them ; who, asPliny
lays, by fo fmal! a matter, have rendered their memory immortal, as if they had done fome-
thmg very notable in life. Others of them have their names from the countries and places
from whence they were brought j and fome of them from fome quality or character pe •
culiar to themfelves.

(13) Crugumina pira, fo called from Crufluminum, a town in Hetruria, where they were
belt, and in greateft plenty. Pliny commends them for their moft agreeable tafte. Ser -
vius fays, that they were partly red, and they were of a fmall fize.

(14) Regia , the royal pear. Pliny fays, that it has a very fhort pedicle or ftalk, and
grows dole to the branch ; it is fomewhat round. Father Rardouin fays, it was what is
now called a Bergamot-pear, from Bergamo in the State of Venice.

(15) Signina pir a, from Signia a town in Italy. Plbty fays, that by fome they were
called tejlacea ; perhaps, becaufe they Were fit for being preferved and kept in earthen
pots ; but he fays, they are fo called from their colour.

(1 6) Tarentina , quce Syria dicuntur. Both Pliny and Servius fay, they were of a black
colour ; and they are commended by Martial , and other authors.

(17) Super ba. Pliny fays, they are fo called, becaufe they come the firft of any, and
ripen very quickly ; and they are of a fmall fize. Father Rardouin calls them poires mu [cates
on mufcadelles, mufcadelle- pears.

(18) Ordeacea , barley-pears. Pliny fays, they are fo called, from the feafon, or time when
they are ripe, in the time of barley-harveft. Father Rardouin calls them St. John's pears.

(19) Ar.iciana , fo called, from fome perfon probably who firft introduced them. Pliny
fays, they are gathered after autumn, and that they are agreeable from their fomewhat
acid tafte.

Favo-

1

248 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookV

Favonian ( 20), the Later it an (21), the Dolabellian (22), the Furr a-
nian (23), the JVarden (2 4), the Honey-pears , and the Early-ripe , and
the Venus-pears (25-), and fome others, which it would be tedious now
to enumerate.

Moreover, thofe kinds of apples muft be chiefly fought after ; the
Scandian{ib ), the Matian (27), the Orbicular (28), the £V.xr//rra (29),
the Pelujian (30), the Amerinian , the Syrian, or red-coloured (31 ),
the Honey-apples , and Quinces (32), of which there are three forts,
the St rut hi an, the Orange or Gold- quinces, and the Muft quinces : all
which not only yield pleafure, but health alfo. The fervice-apple, the
apricot (33), and the peach (34) alfo, are not the leaft beautiful and

lovely.

(20) F avoniana, from one Favonius. Pliny fays, that they were red, and larger than
.the Superb before-mentioned. Father Hardouin fays it is the great mufcadelle-pear.

(21) Eateritana, Eateritiana-, Eaterana, one and the fame pear thus differently written.
Probably it is fo called, from its brick-colour.

(22) Dolabelliana. They have their name from Dolabella , a Roman citizen. Pliny fays,
that they had a very long ftalk.

(23) Turraniana. This has its name from one Niger Turranius , mentioned by Varro ,
lib. ii. and commended as a great lover of cattle,

(24) Volema. They werefo called, becaufe they filled the hand. They were alfo called
libralia , from their weight, found-pears.

(25) Venerea , fo called from their beauty. Pliny fays, they were alfo called celorata ,
from their being as it were painted with feveral beautiful colours.

(26) Mala Scandiana , from one Scandius, as Pliny fays.

(27) Maiiana , from Caius Matius , a Roman knight, and a great favourite of the Em-
•peror Auguflus : he is probably the fame whom Columella mentions in his twelfth book as
author of three books of cookery, <&c.

(28) Orbiculata , fo called, from their round figure, as Pliny fays ,• and adds, that they were
originally of Epirus, and that the Greeks called them Epirotica.

(29) Sextiana, or rather Sejliana, as lib. xii. 45. They are not mentioned by Pliny by
this name. He fays, there is a fort which have their name from one Gefiius , which father
Hardouin is inclined to change into Sejlius.

(30) Pelufiana , Amerina, from Pelufium in Egypt , and Ameria a town in Umbria in Italy.

(31) Syrica. Pliny fays, they were fo called, from their colour, being a bright red.
Ifldorus fays, that Syricum is a certaiu red colour or paint, which the Syrophoenicia?is gathered
upon the fhore of the Red Sea. Pliny fays, that it is alfo a made colour, by mixing finoper,
or ruddle, and fandyx together. This laft, he fays, was alfo a made colour of fandarac
and ruddle an equal quantity, and toafted in a furnace.

(32) Cydonia, kvPuvia from a town in Crete , called Cydon. The Romans called

them mala cotonea. Our author mentions three forts of them. The flruthia , Pliny fays,
were of a fmaller fort : they were covered with much down, and had a ftronger l'mell
than the other forts, and were late in ripening. Why they were called flruthia , feems not
fo certain, whether from their fixe, or from fparrows delighting in them. The fecond
fort were called chryfomela, golden apples, and were diftinguifhed with incifures, and of a
colour inclining to gold. The third fort were called muflea, probably from their having
the tafte of muft, or new wine : they were early ripe. Pliny mentions a fort of apples
that were called muflea a celeritate mitefeendi , becaufe they grew foon mellow, and that
they afterwards were called Honey-apples.

(33) Armeniaca. Our author feems to rank thefe among apples: they are commonly

fuppofed

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 249

lovely. Plant apples, forbs, and plums, after the middle of autumn,
till the thirteenth of February. The feafon for planting mulberry-trees
is from the thirteenth of February till the vernal ./Equinox. Set the
Carob-tree (35-), which fome call xegctnov, and the peach-tree, during
autumn, before winter. If the almond-tree bear but little fruit, after
you have made a hole in the tree, drive a ftone into it, and leave it there,
that the bark may grow over it.

But, of all thefe kinds, it is proper to fet the branches regularly in
orchards, about the beginning of March , upon beds raifed in the feve-
ral divifions thereof, and made of earth that has been well manured
and dunged. Care muft be taken, that when their fmall branches are
young and tender, they be, as it were, pampinated, or freed from
luperfluous twigs and leaves, as you do vines j and that the plants be
reduced the firll year to one ftem : and when autumn approaches,
before the colds pinch them, and dry up their tops, it is proper to
pull off all the leaves, and fo cover them with thick reeds, which have
their knots intire at one end, as it were with caps, and fo to defend
the yet tender rods from the cold and the frofts : then, after twenty-
four months, whether you have a mind to tranfplant them, and range
them in rows, or to ingraft them, you may fafely enough do either the
one or the other.

iuppofed to be what we call Apricocks ; but Pliny feems to rank them among the plums,'
and fays, they have their name from Armenia , their native country, and are commended
for their agreeable fmell.

(34) Perfica , peaches. Pliny fays, they were foreign both to Afia and Europe , being
brought out of Per [la, and have their name from their country ■, that it was with difficulty
they fucceeded when tranfplanted, for which reafon it was late before they came into Italy •
and that it was falfe, that they were of a poifonous quality in Perjia, as was commonly
believed, as Columella fays exprefly in his tenth book. But this was a vulgar opirfion, and
our author fays nothing of it here-

(3<;) SiliquaGraca , which fome call y.%py.isov, the carob-tree : it grows in great plenty
in Greece and Syria , and in many parts of Italy. Its fruit is lhaped like the husk, or pods,
of fome forts of pulfe. In Syria, it feems, the poorer fort of people, and cattle, feed
upon it, as we fee in St. Luke xv. 16. where the prodigal fon is faid to have delired to fill
h s belly, a to #J> m which is rendered husks by our tranflacors of the New Tefta-
ment.

K k

CHAP.

250

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

CHAP. XI.

Of ingrafting of Trees .

EVERY kind of fhoot or cyon can be graffed upon every kind of
tree, if in its bark it is not unlike to that upon which it is graffed;
but if it produces alfo like fruit, and at the fame time, it may be
graffed upon it perfectly well, without any fcruple. Moreover, the
undents have given us an account of three kinds of ingrafting, one,
whereby a tree that is cut and cloven, receives cyons that are cut off
from fome other tree : a fecond, whereby a tree, after it is cut, admits
the plants or cyons between its bark and wood, both which kinds are
proper for the fpring-time ; the third kind, whereby the tree receives
the buds themfelves, with a little bark, into a part of itfelf, from
which the bark is taken away, which Hufbandmen call EmplaJira -
tion ( i ), or, as fome call it. Inoculation. This kind of ingrafting is
beft put in practice in the fummer-time. When we fhall have de-
fcribed the way and method of thefe ingraftings, we fhall alfo teach
you that which we have invented.

Graff all trees in the increafe of the moon, as foon as they fhall
begin to put forth their buds, but the olive-tree about the vernal
iEquinox, till the thirteenth of April. From whatever tree you fhall
have a mind to chufe grafts, and are going to take cyons, fee that it be
young and fertile, and with frequent knots or joints ; and as foon as
the buds fhall fwell, chufe them of the thicknefs of your little finger,
from the fmall branches of one year old, which look to the riling of
the fun, and are perfectly found. Let the cyons be two or three¬
forked. Cut the tree which you have a mind to graff upon, carefully
with a faw, in that part where it is faireft and in befi: condition, and
without any fear ; and you muft be very careful not to hurt the bark.
Then after you have cut the trunk through, fmooth the wound with a
fharp iron tool. Then put down a fmall iron or bone-wedge between
the bark and the wood, not lefs than three fingers breadth ; but do it
very confiderately, that you may not hurt or break the bark. Afterwards
pare, with a fharp pruning-knife, the cyonsyou have a mind to ingraft,
on one fide only, as far as the wedge which you have put down will

(i) Emplaftrafion, fo called, from the plaiftcr of clay or wax ufed in this fort of graff-
ing. it is alfo called inoculation, or ineying, froth the taking an eye or bud off a tree,
and fetting it into another, with a bit of the bark of its own tree.

I

give

Chap. XI. O/HUSBANDRY. 251

give them fpace, and do it fo as you may not hurt the pith, nor the
bark of the other fide. When you have prepared your cyons, pull out
the wedge, and immediately put down the cyons into the holes which
you {hall have made with the wedge driven in between the bark and
the wood ; but infert the cyons by that end which you have pared, in
fuch a manner, that they may ftand out from the tree half a foot, and
no more. You may very well graff two grafts into one tree j or, if
the trunk be larger, you may grafF more. Let there be a fpace of
four fingers breadth between them : do thefe things according to the
bignefs of the tree, and the goodnefs of the bark. When you have
thruft down all the grafts which that tree will fuffer, bind the tree
faft with elm-tree inward bark, or with a bulrufh, or a willow. Then
daub the wound all over with well-wrought clay, mixed with ftraw,
and the fpace which is between the grafts, fo far, as that the grafts
may appear and hand out at leaffc four fingers breadth above it ; then
put mofs upon it, and bind it fo, that the rain may not fink into it.

Neverthelefs, fome are better pleafed with making a place for the
grafts with a faw in the hock of the tree, and to fmooth the parts
which are cut, with a fmall penknife, and fo to fit the grafts to them.
If you have a mind to ingraft a very fmall tree, cut it off very low, fo
that it may hand only one foot and an half above the ground ; and then
when you have cut it through, fmooth the wound carefully, and, with
a fharp penknife, cleave the middle of the flock a very little way, fo
that there may be a cleft in it of three fingers breadth ; and then infert
a wedge into it, whereby it may be kept open ; and put down into it
grafts pared on both fides, fo that you may make the rind, or inward
bark of the graft, equal to the rind of the tree. When you have care¬
fully fitted the grafts, take out the wedge, and bind up the tree, as I
faid above : then heap up the earth about the tree to the very place
where the ingraftment is made j this will defend it moft of any thing
from the wind and heat.

The third kind of ingraftment, inafmuch as it is exceeding nice
and delicate, is not fit for all forts of trees ; but, for the moft part,
fuch as have a moift, juicy, and ftrong bark, admit of fuch an ingraft¬
ment; as the fig-tree ; for it yields great abundance of milk, and has a
very ftrong bark. Therefore it is exceeding proper to be grafted upon
after this manner : Chufe young and fair branches from off that tree
from which you have a mind to take your grafts ; and in them take
particular notice of the eye, which fhall make a fair appearance, and
afford a certain hope of a bud : mark it all round, about two fingers
fquare, fo that the eye mav be in the middle ; and fo cut it all round

K k 2 with

252 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book V.

with a fharp penknife, and take off the bark carefully, that you may
not hurt the gem. After this, chufe alfo the faireft branch of the tree
which you are about to inoculate, and cut all round the fame quantity
of its bark, and take it off the wood : then fit the fcutcheon, which
you have prepared, into that part which you have ftripped of its bark,
fo that it may agree exactly to the part from which the bark is taken.
When you have done thefe things thus, bind it well round the gem,
and beware, that you do not hurt the bud itfelf : then daub the join¬
ings and bindings with clay, leaving a fpace, that the gem may be at
liberty, and not be preffed with the binding : but chop off all the under
fhoots and upper branches of the tree which you have graffed upon,
that there may be nothing whereby the juice may be diverted, and to
which it may minifter nourifhment rather than to the graft. After
the twenty-firft day, unbind the fcutcheon, and with this kind of graff-
ing the olive-tree alfo is graffed upon with exceeding good effect.

We have already taught you that fourth kind of grading, when we
treated of vines : therefore it is needlefs to repeat, in this place, the way
and method of terebration, which we have already described. But,
forafmuch as the antients denied, that every kind of graft might be
graffed into every kind of tree, and eftablilhed, as a certain law, that
limitation, as it were, which a little before we made ufe of, viz. that
only thofe grafts could coalefce, which, in their bark, and rind, and
fruit, were confimilar to thofe trees upon which they are ingrafted ;
we thought it proper, that this erroneous opinion (hould be confuted,
and a method delivered to pofterity, whereby every kind of graft might
be graffed upon every kind of tree. But that we may not weary the
reader, by drawing out this book to too great a length, we {hall fub-
join, as it were, one example, whereby all forts of grafts may be graffed
upon all forts of trees.

Dig a trench four feet every way, at fuch a diftance from an olive-
tree, that the extreme branches of the olive may reach to it : then
plant in the trench a fmall fig-tree, and take great care, that it become
fair, found, and flrong. After the fpace of three years, when it has
had a large-enough growth, bend downwards the branch of the olive-
tree, which feems to be the faireft and the goodlieft, and tie it to the
flock of the fig-tree ; and fo, having cut off all the other fmall
branches, leave only thofe tops which you fhall have a mind to ingraft:

, then chop off the fig-tree by the trunk, and fmooth the wound, and
cleave it down the middle with a wedge : then pare the tops of the
olive-tree on both fides, as they flick to their mother, and fo infert
them into the cleft of the fig-tree, and take out the wedge, and bind
' . . " * the

Chap. XII. Of HUS BAN DRY. 253

the fmall branches carefully together, that they may not, by any force*
be pulled away. Thus, in the fpace of three years, the fig-tree grows
up together, and takes with the olive-tree ; and then, at length, the
fourth year, when they are well co-united, you (hall cut off the branches
of the olive from their mother, as if they were layers. In this man¬
ner you fhall graff every kind of tree on every kind of tree. But, be¬
fore we make an end of this book, fince we have in the former books
treated almoft of all the different forts of grafts, it is now a proper
time to fpeak of the Cytifus , or Shrub-trefoil.

CHAP. XII.

Of the Cytifus, or Shrub- trefoil.

IT is of great importance, that there be great abundance of the
tifus , or fhrub-trefoil, in your land, becaufe it is moft ufeful for
hens, bees, goats, oxen alfo, and for all kind of cattle j becaufe they
foon grow fat thereby, and it gives the ewes plenty of milk j as alfo,
becaufe you may ufe it eight months for green fodder, and afterwards
you may make ufe of it dry. Moreover, it quickly takes in any land
whatfoever, altho’ exceeding lean : it bears all kind of ill ufage with¬
out receiving any hurt. Yea, if women labour under fcarcity of milk,
the Cytifus , or dry fhrub-trefoil, muft be fteeped in water 3 and, when
it has foaked throughly the whole night, the next day the juice of it
muft be fqueezed out, and three hemince of it mixed with a little wine,
and fo given them to drink : thus, both they themfelves fhall enjoy
good health, and their children fhall be ftrengthened with abundance
of milk.

The Cytifus , or fhrub-trefoil, may be fown either in autumn, about
the fifteeenth of October j or in the fpring. After you have well manured
the earth, make it into fmall beds, and there fow the feed of the
fhrub-trefoil, as you do that of common bafil. Then fet the plants
regularly in the fpring, fo that there may be fpaces of four feet every
way between them. If you have no feed, fet the tops of the fhrub-
trefoil in the fpring, and heap up well-dunged earth all round them.
If rain does not come on presently after, water them the next fifteen
days j and hoe them as foon as they begin to put forth new leaves ;
and, after three years, cut it down, and give it to the cattle. Fifteen
pounds weight of it green is enough for an horfe, and twenty pounds

25+ L. J. M. COLUMELLA, &c. Book V.

for oxen, and for other cattle in proportion to their ftrength. Alfo
Shrub-trefoil may be conveniently enough planted in branches before
the month of September , becaufe it eafily takes hold, and bears with
ill ufage. If you give it dry, give it more fparingly, becaufe it hath
greater ftrength j fteep it firft in water, and, after it is taken out, mix
it with chaff, or ftraw. When you have a mind to dry the Cytifu ^
cut it down when its feed fhall begin to grow big, and keep it a few
hours in the fun, till it fade ; then dry it throughly in the (hade, and
fo lay it up. It is enough for me thus far to have given precepts and
diredions concerning trees : now I am going, in the following book,
to give an account of the care and management of cattle, and of the
remedies proper for them.

L. JWNIUS

[ 255 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK SIXTH.

SKnow, Publius Silvinus , that fome prudent Hufbandmen have
refufed to take upon themfelves the care and management, either
of greater or fmaller cattle j and have moft conftantly flighted andi
remedied that art and occupation, as hurtful and contrary to their
profefiion : nor do I deny, that they did this with fome reafon, as if the
purpofe and aim of the Grazier were contrary to that of the Hufband-
man, inafmuch as the latter rejoiced moft in ground that is exceedingly
well manured, and perfe&ly clean and free from weeds j the former
delights in that which is unplowed, and produces plenty of grafs ; the
one hopes for fruit from the earth, the other from his cattle. So it
comes to pafs, that what the plower abominates, the Grazier, on the
contrary, willies for, viz. great plenty of grafs and herbs,

Neverthelefs, in thefe fo difcordant delires, there is a certain fociety,
or fellowfhip, or communion ; becaufe it is cuftomary to eat up the
fodder which the ground produces, for the moft part rather with do-
meftic cattle, than with thofe belonging to ftrangers. And by plen¬
tiful dunging, which is owing to flocks and herds of cattle,, the earth,
produces her fruits in great abundance : nor yet is there any country,,
provided there is corn produced in it, which does not receive great
benefit and advantage from the help and affiftance of all forts of great
cattle, as well as of men. Hence labouring cattle alfo derived their
name from the thing, being called jumenta^ (helps) becaufe they ea fed
and helped us in our labour, either by carrying loads, or by plowing.
Therefore, as the infant Romans commanded, I myfelf alfo am of opi¬
nion, that we ftiould throughly underftand the management of cattle,
as well as the culture of lands. For, in a r,ural life, the bufinefs and

oc-

256 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

occupation of Grazing is certainly moft antient (1), and the fame is
alfo exceeding gainful : for which reafon, the Latin words for money
and goods feem to be derived from the word which fignifies cattle ,
becaufe the antients pofiefled nothing elfe ; and at this time, with fome
nations, this one kind of riches only is in ufe and efleem ; and now,
with our farmers, there is no other thing whatfoever, that turns to
better account, or yields a greater increafe ; as M. Cato alfo believed,
who, when one afked his advice, What part of Hufbandry he fhould
follow, whereby he might quickly be enriched ? anfwered, If he
would apply himfelf diligently to the bufinefs of a Grazier. And
when he afked him again, What he fhould do next, in order to receive
a plentiful enough income ? affirmed, If he would apply himfelf to
the bufinefs of Grazing but indifferently. But I am loth to tell (2) of
fo wife a man, what fome authors relate ; that when the fame man
afked, What was the third gainful thing in Hufbandry ? he afferted.
If one would follow the bufinefs of Grazing, even but negligently ;
efpecially confidering, that the lofs which follows a flothful and igno¬
rant Grazier, is greater than the advantage which redounds to one that
is prudent and diligent. Neverthelefs, as to the fecond anfwer, there
is no doubt but the produce of the cattle may do more than make
an amends for the tolerable negligence of the owner. For which rea -
fon, we alfo, Silvinus , have committed this part of Hufbandry to
pofterity, having followed the precepts of our anceftors, with all the
induftry we have been capable of.

(1) Jumenta. Horfes and oxen are fo called, becaufe they help and affift men in their
labour. It feems to be an abbreviation of juvamenta, helps.

In all the antient poets, both Greek and Latin, the breeding and feeding of cattle is
always honourably mentioned, as a bufinefs to which perfons of the greateft charadter
applied themfelves ; and 4ro\v{tnK&t oro\va$v(&', otoKuCovtuc, rich in fheep and oxen, &c.
were common epithets of the greateft Captains, Leaders, and Governors. And the
Poets, from the great riches that great plenty of wool produced, invented their fable of
the Golden Fleece, e$-c. And Varro, who was a very great antiquarian, and with very
good reafon gathers the nature and origin of things from the names by which they were
called, fays, that the ftory of the golden apples, fo much celebrated by the antient Poets,
fignified only fheep and goats, which Hercules brought out of Africa into Greece , which
the Greeks called in their own tongue imko: and he is of the fame opinion with our
author, that pecunia, and peculium , money, and all kinds of goods whatfoever, were fo
called from pecus, which fignifies cattle.

(2) Piget dicere. Here Columella blames Cato for averting, that even bad feeding of
cattle would not fail to bring fome gain to a Grazier. But Cato's anfwer fignifies only the
great efteem he had of cattle, and how great gain might be made by breeding them. Plin.
Nat. Hifl. lib. xviii. cap. 5. mentions the two firft queftions and anfwers, but takes no
notice of the third. Tally , in his Offices, lib. ii. 25. takes notice of all the three, and
adds a fourth way of being rich, viz. that of Tillage.

There-

Chap. I. " . Of HUSBANDRY. 257

Therefore there are two kinds of four-footed bcafts, with one kind
of which we furnifh ourfelves in order to take them into a copartner-
fhip of our labours, as the ox, the mule, the horie, the afs ; the other
we provide ourfelves with for our plea fu re, for our guard and pro¬
tection, and for the fake of the yearly profit they bring us ; as the
fheep, the goat, the hog, the dog. We fhall firft fpeak of that kind,
which we make ufe of as copartners in our labour ; nor is there any
doubt but (as Varro (2) fays), the ox ought to be honoured and re-
fpeCted above all other cattle, but efpecially in Italy, which is fuppofed
to have derived its name from this animal, becaufe, of old, the Greeks
called bulls TaAas ; and in that city, where a male and a female of
this kind of cattle marked out the bounds with a plough, when they
were going to build the walls : alfo, becaufe at Athens the ox is faid to
be the minifler of Ceres and Triptolemus (3) : and becaufe he has ob¬
tained a place in the heavens amongft the brighteft ftars : moreover,
becaufe he is ftill man’s mofl laborious companion in Hufbandry, and
for whom they had fo great a veneration among the antients, that it
was as capital a crime to have killed an ox, as a citizen. With him,
therefore, let us begin the work we have promifed.

CHAP. I.

Of buying Oxen , 'and of their Shape and Make.

IT is not an eafy matter for me to tell, what things are to be ob-
ferved, and what to be avoided, in buying of oxen j feeing cattle
derive both the habit of their body, and the difpofition of their mind,

(2) Varro, in his fecond book of Husbandry, fays, that if the antients had not had a
great efteem for cattle, their aftronomers would not, in defcribing the heavens, have
called fome figns by their names ; fo that fome of them began the twelve figns with the
two chief names of cattle, Aries and Taurus , the Ram and the Bull, preferring them to
Apollo and Hercules , which fome thought were intended by Gemini , tho’ commonly it is
thought, that Cajlor and Pollux were fignified thereby ; and, not content with the fixth
part of the figns being called by their names, they added Capricornus , in order to have
the fourth parti and, that feveral places, both by fea and land, retain their names, as
the Bofphorus and JEgean feas i the mountain Taurus , See. and, that feveral eminent men
had their names from different forts of cattle, as Porcius , Ovinius, Caprinius , Taurus , Vi-
tulus , &c. all which, and many other things, fhew the great regard they had for cattle.

(3) Cereris & Triptolemi minijler. Ceres , the goddefs of corn and tillage: fhe nurfed
Triptolemus the fon of Celeus King of Athens , and taught him Husbandry. The poets
feign, that he travelled over the whole earth, in order to teach men Husbandry. Pro¬
bably, he wrote of Husbandry, and publifhed his books to the world, which gave occa-
fion to the fable.

L 1 and

25B L, J, M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

and the colour of their hair, from the condition of the country, and
the conftitution of the climate. The Afiatie have one form, the Gal -
Heart another, and thofe of Epirus a third. Nor is there only a di-
verfity in thofe of the Provinces, but, in Italy itfelf alfo, they differ
in its feveral parts. Campania , for the moft part, breeds white and
(lender oxen j nevertheless, they are not unfit for labour, and for cul¬
tivating their native foil. Umbria produces fuch as are huge, and of
a white colour ; the fame produces alfo fuch as are red, and they are
no lefs to be approved for their temper and difpofition, than for their
bodies. Hetruria and Latium produce fuch as are compadt, but ftrong
for labour : the Apennine mountains, fuch as are exceeding hardy and
flurdy, and which endure any kind of hardfhip, but not comely nor
beautiful to look upon. Since in thefe there is fo great diverfity and
variety, the Plower, in buying bullocks, ought to obferve fome com¬
mon and certain precepts as it were : and thefe Mago the Carthaginian
has tranfmitted and delivered to us, fo as we fhall hereafter relate
them.

Such oxen are to be purchafed as are young, fquare, with huge
members, lofty horns, and fomewhat blackilh and robuft, with a
broad and curled forehead, hairy rough ears, black eyes and lips, wide
noftrils, a camoys nofe, a long and brawny neck, large dewlaps, and
almoft hanging down to their knees, a great bread:, vaft fhoulders, a
capacious belly, and, as it were, great with young, extended fides,
broad loins, a flraight and even back, or even fomewhat fubiiding,
round buttocks, with compadt, well-fet, and ftraight legs, but rather
fhorter than longer, and not with big and ill-fhaped knees, with great
hoofs, and exceeding long briftly tails, and the hair of their whole
body thick and fhort (i), of a red or dark colour, and exceeding foft
to the touch.

(i) Pi/of fjue , eorpore denfo brevique. In this laft paragraph I have followed the cor¬
rection of Pontedera-) the errors of the text being very manifeft, as Gefnerus and others
have obferved; for oxen with thick and fhort bodies are not at all approved. Varro ,
lib. ii. 5. faysj Let thefe cattle be well made , with found , oblong , and large members. Pal¬
ladios , lib. iv. ii. Let oxen have fquare and huge limbs , and a firm and folid body. And
Columella , in this very chapter, diredls us to purchafe young oxen that> are fquare , and
have huge limbs. So that it is very probable the true reading is, caudis longijpmis <dr fetopSj
pilo totius corporis denfo ac brevi.

CHAP.

Chap. II.

Of HUSBANDRY.
CHAP. II.

259

Of breaking of Oxen.

CALVES of fuch a character you muft accullom, while they are
yet young, to be handled and tied to their mangers, that there
may be very little labour, and lefs danger, in breaking of them. But
I am of opinion, that fleers ought not to be broken, either before their
third, or after their fifth year, becaufe that age is, as yet, too tender
and young, and this is now exceeding fliff and flurdy. But it is pro¬
per^ that thofe, which are caught, and taken wild out of the herd,
fhould be tamed and broken in this manner :

Firfl of all, let a fpacious liable be prepared, where the perfon, that
breaks them, may eafily go about his bufinefs, and from whence he
may retire without danger. Let there be no narrow flrait places before
the liable, but either a field, or a wide open way, that, when the bul¬
locks are brought out, they may have a free excurfion, that fo, when
they are timorous and Ikittilh, they may not intangle themfelves with
trees, or any other thing lying in their way, and receive hurt. Let there
be large cribs in the liable, and above them tranfverfe planks, fallened
in the manner of yokes, feven feet high from the ground, to which the
fleers may be tied. Then make choice of the morning of a day, which
is free from llorms and religious ceremonies, when you may begin the
breaking of your cattle, and bind the horns of the bullocks with hempen
ropes ; but let the ropes, wherewith they are at firll caught, be wrapt
about with wooly Ikins, that their tender foreheads under their horns
may not be hurt. Then, after you have feized the young lleers, bring
them to the liable, and tie them to the flakes, fo that they may be at
their eafe, and have a little room to move in ; and let them be a little
fpace dillant from each other, that, in llruggling, the one may not
hurt the other. If they are too fierce, fuffer them to give vent to their
fury for one day and a night ; and, as foon as they have alfwaged and
reprelfed their anger, let them be led out in one’s hand, fo that there
may be both fomebody before them, and feveral behind them, who may
follow them, and keep them in with ropes j and let one go before with
a willow cudgel, and, with gentle blows, from time to time rellrain
and flop their fudden fallies and efforts. But, if the oxen are gentle
and quiet, you may lead them forth before the evening, even the very
fame day you tied them to the Hake, and teach them to walk a thoufand

L 1 2 paces

36 o L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

paces quietly and without fear. After you have led them home, tie
them again clofe to the ftakes, fo that they may not be able to move
their head. Then afterwards come up to the oxen, when they are tied,
neither behind them, nor fideways, but right before them, gently, and
with a Toothing and fawning voice, that they may accuftom themfelves
to look to you when you come up to them. Then rub their noftrils,
that they may learn to fmell a man. Afterwards alfo it is proper to
handle all their fkin, and to fprinkle it all over with pure wine, that
they may become more familiar with him that tends them, or labours
with them ; and to put your hand alfo under their belly, and upon their
thighs, that afterwards they may not be frightened, when they are
touched in this manner, and that the tikes, which commonly flick to
their thighs, may be taken away. Therefore, when the perfon that
breaks them is doing this, he ought to ftand at a fide, that he may be
out of the reach of their heels. After thefe things, having opened their
jaws, draw out their tongue, and rub their palate all over with fait, and
put down their throat with a llice a pound of fops dipped in very fait
melted fat ; and pour into their jaws, thro’ an horn, a Jextarius of wine
each ; for, by thefe blandifhments, they grow tame almoft in three
days time, and receive the yoke the fourth day, to which a bough of
a tree is tied, and drawn inftead of the beam of the plough j and fome-
times fomething of weight is joined to it, that, by their greater effort,
their patience of labour may be tried.

After experiments of this fort, they mufl be yoked to an empty cart,
and gradually led out to a greater diftance with their loads. Being thus
throughly broken, let them be prefently inftruCted and bred up to the
plough, but in manured land, that they may not prefently dread the
difficulty of the work, nor bruife their necks, that are but tender as yet,
with breaking up unplowed land, which is very hard and difficult. But
I gave directions in the firft book, after what manner a Ploughman may
train up an ox in plowing. You mufl take care, that the ox, during
the time you are breaking him, may not touch any perfon either with
his horn, or his heel ; for, unlefs thefe things are prevented, he can
never be freed from thefe vices, even tho’ he be throughly broken.

But we direCt, that thefe things be done thus, in cafe you have no
veteran cattle at hand j for, if there are any at hand, there is a fafer and
more expeditious way of breaking them, which we follow in our own
lands : for, when we accuftom a bullock to the cart, or the plough, we
yoke one of the ftrongeft and gentleft of our broken oxen with one
that is not broken, who may both pull him back when he makes too
great hafte, and lead him on when he lingers or flops. But, if we do

not

Chap. Hi Of HUSBANDRY. 261

not grudge the being at the trouble to make a yoke, wherein three oxen
may be yoked, we fhall, by this contrivance, gain our end fo far, that
even ftubborn headftrong oxen will not refufe the heavieft loads ; for,
where a flow or reftiff bullock is yoked in the middle between two vete¬
ran oxen, and, being put into the plough, is forced to till the ground,
he is no more left at liberty to refufe and difobey what is commanded j
for, whether he falls into a fury and rage, and leaps out on one fide, he
is kept in his place at the pleafure of the other two } or whether he flands
ftill, when the other two go on, he alfo obeys ; or, if he endeavours to
lie down, he is held up and drawn along by the ftronger} by which
means, he is forced on every fide to lay down his ftubbornnefs, and,
with very few ftrokes, is brought to endure labour.

There is alfo an ox of a fofter kind after breaking, who lies down in
the furrow. I am of opinion, that lie mufl. be cured, not by cruelty,
but by reafon ; for they who judge, that this vice is beft removed with
goads, or fire, and other torments, are ignorant of true reafon, becaufe
their obftinate ftubbornnefs, for the moil part, wearies the perfon that
is enraged againft them, and that ufes them cruelly } for which reafon,
it is better to cure an ox, that lies down, with hunger and thirft, with¬
out tormenting his body ; for his natural defires affedt him more vehe¬
mently than blows. Therefore, if an ox has lain down, the moft effect¬
ual way is to bind his feet with ropes, fo that he may neither be able to
ftand, or go forward, nor to feed. By doing of which, being forced
with hunger and thirft, he lays down his fluggifhnefs j which neverthe-
lefs is very rare in our own country cattle. And every ox, bred in our
own country, is better than one that is a ftranger • for he is neither
tempted by the change of water, nor of fodder, nor of climate, nor
infefted with the ftate and condition of the country, as that ox is, which
is brought from even and champain places into fuch as are mountainous
and rugged^ or from mountainous places into a champain country.
Therefore, when we are forced to bring oxen from a diftant country,
we muft alfo take care, that they be taken from fuch places in their
own country, as are like to thofe into which they are brought. We
muft alfo obferve, that one that is unequal in bulk of body, or in fta-
ture, or in ftrength, be not yoked with one that is ftronger } for both
thefe things prove deftruCtive to the weaker.

The manners, or temper and difpofition, of this cattle are moft ap¬
proved, which are nearer to the gentle and peaceable, than to the vio¬
lent and fierce, but not fluggifh and dull} which are afraid of loud blu-
ftering words, but, in confidence of their ftrength, are not ftartled at
what they either fee or hear, nor afraid to go into rivers, or pafs

bridges }

262 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

bridges ; which eat up a vaH quantity of food, but are flow in chewing
it ; for thefe digeft better : and therefore, fuch as eat at their leifure
and conveniency, preferve the ftrength of their body without leannefs,
better than thole which eat in a hurry. But it is as great a fault, in
one that has the care of oxen, to make an ox fat, as it is to make him
lean ; for the bulk and plight of body in labouring cattle ought to be
moderate, and fit for their bufinefs, robufl in nerves and mufcles, not
fwelled with fat, that they may neither be weighed down and wearied
* with the bulk of their own hide, nor with the drudgery of their work.
k But, fince we have given an account of fuch things as ought to be ob-
ferved in buying and breaking of oxen, let us now give directions for
managing and keeping them.

'Twn I !■ ■■■■ — ■■■■■■ ■ ■ ■ -■ ■— mmm mm , ■ — — —— i — — ■ — — »

CHAP. III.

Of the Care that is requifite in keeping of Oxen , and of the

Food that is proper for them,

IN hot weather oxen mull abide in the open air, and, in cold, with-
in-doors : therefore, for their winter ftabling, Hubble muft be pre¬
pared, which, being cut down in the month of Auguji , within thirty
days after the harveft is removed, ought to be put up in Hacks. The
cutting it down is of great advantage, both to the cattle, and the land.
The corn-fields are freed from briars and thorns, which, being cut down
in the fummer-time, about the time that the Dog-flar rifes, perifli to
the very roots, and, being laid under the cattle’s litter, make a great
deal of dung. When we have thus taken care of thefe things, then we
. muH both make provifion of all kinds of fodder, and be careful, that
the cattle don’t grow lean through fcarcity or want of food.

But there is not one method only of feeding oxen rightly ; for, if the
great plenty of the country affords green fodder, nobody doubts but this
kind of food is to be preferred to all other j which, neverthelefs, does
not happen, but in places that are well watered, or where the dew falls
in great abundance. Therefore, in thefe very places, the greateH ad¬
vantage and conveniency is, that one Ploughman is fufficient for two
yoke of oxen, which, on the fame day, do either plow, or go out to
paflure by turns. In drier lands, the oxen muH be fed at their cribs ;
and their food is given them according to the Hate and condition of the
country j and nobody doubts but vetches and chichlings, as alfo mea¬
dow-

Chap. III. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 263

dow-hay tied up in bundles, are the bed: food for them. We maintain
and fupport our herds lefs commodioufly with chaff or corn-draw,
which every-where are a fupport to them, and, in fome countries, the
only one they have. Chaff or draw of millet is mod approved, then that
of barley, and next that of wheat alfo. But, befides thefe, they give
barley to labouring oxen, which perform the full talk of labour.

But fodder is difpenfed to oxen, according to the feafons of the year.
In the month of 'January , it is proper to give each of them four J’exta-
rii of bitter vetches, bruifed and foaked in water, and mixt with draw
or chad" ; or one modius of foaked lupins ; or half a modius of foaked
chichlings; and, over and above thefe, draw or chaff in abundance.
We may alfo, if there is a fcarcity of pulfe, mix with their draw or
chaff wafhed and dried grape-dones, that are taken out of the fmall
wine, which is lad made. Nor is it to be doubted, but it is better to
give them thefe with their hufks, before they are wafhed ; for they have
the drength both of food, and of wine, and make the cattle both deek
and fair, and chearful and plump. If we keep them from grain, a
fodder-bafket full of dry leaves of twenty modii is fufHcient, or thirty
pound weight of hay 5 or, if we do not with-hold corn from them, a
modius of green laurel, and of ever-green oak-leaves. But to thefe you
add mad, if the plenty of the country will permit it ; which, unlefs it
be given to fatiety (1), breeds the fcab. Alfo you may give them half
a modius of bruifed beans, if the great crop you have of them make it
turn to your advantage.

In the month of February , for the mod part, the fame kinds of food
fuffice. In the months of March and April , fome addition ought to be
made to the weight of hay, becaufe they are then tilling the ground ;
but it will be enough, if you give them forty pound weight each. Ne-
verthelefs, from the thirteenth of the month of Aprily to the fifteenth
of June , it is right to cut green fodder for them. Alfo, in colder
places, the fame thing may be done to the fir d of July ; from which
time, to the fird of November , during the whole fummer, and after
that in autumn, let them be fatiated with leaves j which neverthelefs
are not ufeful, till they be fully ripened with fhowers, or continual
dews. The elm-tree-leaf is mod approved ; afterwards that of the affi ;
and next that of the poplar-tree. Thofe of the ever-green oak, com¬
mon oak, and laurel or bay-tree, are lead edeemed ; but, after fummer,
they are neceflary, when the others fail. You may alfo give them fig-

(1) nip ad fatietatem datur, fcab'em parit. Some think, that the true read ng is,

fi ad fatietatem datury becaufe afterwards he limits the quantity of maft to begiven, mixed
wich other fodder.

tree-

264 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

tree -leaves very fafely, if you have plenty of them, or if it be expedient
to drip the trees. Neverthelefs the ever-green oak-leaf is better than
that of the common oak, but of that kind which has not prickles; for
cattle refufe and diflike that, as they do the juniper-tree, becaufe of
their prickles. In the months o i November and December , during the
feed-time, you muft give the ox as much as he defires, and has an appe¬
tite for. Neverthelefs, for the moll: part, a modius of mad to each of
them, and chaff or draw given them till they be fatiated, is fufficient ;
or a modius of deeped lupins ; or feven fextarii of bitter vetches,
fprinkled with water, mixt with chaff ; or twelve fextarii of chich-
lings, fprinkled in like manner with water, and mixed with chaff ; or
to each of them a modius of grape-dones, if to thefe be added, as I faid
above, a large quantity of chaff; or, if you have none of thefe, forty
pound weight of hay by itfelf.

C H A P. IV.

Of the Difeafes of Oxen , and of their Remedies .

BUT it will be of no advantage, that cattle have food to the full,
unlefs they be affided with all diligence, that they may be of a
wholfome body, and preferve their fhrength ; both which are main¬
tained, by giving them, for three days, a large dofe of a medicine, which
is compounded of an equal weight of bruifed lupins, and of cyprefs-
tree, and with water kept for one night in the open air ; and this ought
to be done four times in the year, about the latter end of the fpring,
fummer, autumn, and winter. Oft-times alfo feeblenefs, and want of
fpirits, and naufeating, are removed, if you put an hen’s egg raw,
without breaking it, into their chops fading ; and, the day after., bruife
cloves of Cyprian or common garlick ( i) with wine, and fo pour it into
their nodrils ; neither do thefe remedies only- make them healthful.

Many alfo mix a large quantity of fait with their fodder ; fome have
given them horehound with oil and wine ; fome infufe fibres of leeks ;
others grains of frankincenfe ; others the herb favine, and rue, in pure
wine ; and give them thefe medicines to drink. Many cure their oxen

(i) Spicas ulpici. Both Pliny and our author fay, that this ulpicum is called Cyprian
garlick. Pliny fays the Greeks alfo called it antifcorodon ; but Columell/i fays they called it
uphrojcorodon. See lib. ix. c. 3, for a further delcription of it.

with

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 265

with ftalks of the white vine (2), and hufks of the bitter vetch. Some
bruife the fkin of a ferpent, and mix it with wine. Mother of thyme,
bruifed with fweet wine, is alfo a remedy for them j and fquills cut
fmall, and fteeped in water. All which forefaid potions given them for
three days, three hemince every day, purge their belly, and, after remov¬
ing their diftempers, repair their ftrength. Neverthelefs the lees of oil
are reckoned the moft falutary, if you mix an equal quantity of water
with them, and accuftom the cattle to them by degrees j but they can¬
not be given them immediately; but firft their food is fprinkled with
them, then a fmall quantity of them is mixed with their water, and,
foon afterwards, you mix an equal quantity of both, and give them as.
much as they are able to drink.

CHAP. V.

Of fuch "Things as bring the Plague upon Cattle , and what

Remedies are to be applied.

BUT it is of no advantage at any time, but leaft of all in fummer,
to roufe the oxen fo as to make them run ; for this either gives
them a loofenefs, or raifes a fever. You mull alfo beware, that neither
a fow nor a hen creep into their cribs j for that which falls from them,
being mixed with their fodder, is certain death to oxen ; and that efpe-
cially, which a Tick fow throws up and vomits, is enough to raife the
plague : and, when this lights upon an herd, you muft prefently change
the climate, and, having diftributed the cattle into feveral divilions, you
muft go with them into regions that lie at a great diftance ; and the
difeafed muft be fo feparated from the found, that not fo much as one
may come among them, which may, with the contagion, infecft the
reft. Therefore, when they are removed to a great diftance, they muft
be brought into thofe places wherein no other cattle are fed, left, by
their coming, they bring the plague alfo among them.

But difeafes, altho’ peftilential, muft be conquered and repelled by
exquifite remedies. Then the roots of allheal and eringo muft be mixed
with fennel-feeds , and fprinkled with muft boiled into a third of the

(a) Vttis alba. Pliny fays, that this plant is by fome called 'white bryony. The Greeks
call it by many other names, as he tells us, lib. xxiii. cap. i. It lhoots forth with many
fprays, with long joints and knots, and jagged leaves and tendrils, like a vine ; of which
the forefaid author gives a diftindt account in the fore-mentioned place.

M m firft

2(56 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI

firft quantity, and with wheat-flour and boiling water ; and with this
medicine the fick cattle muft be drenched. Then you make a potion
with an equal quantity of caflia, myrrh, and frankincenfe,. and a like
quantity of the blood of a fea-tortoife, with three Jextarii of old wine,
and fo pour it into their noftrils. But it will be fufficient, if you give
the medicine itfelf divided into equal dofes of one ounce and an half,
with wine, for three days.

We have alfo known, that a fmall root, which Herdfmen call con-
filigo (lungwort) (i), has been a prefent remedy. It grows in great
plenty in the Marjian mountains, and is exceeding wholfome for all
kinds of cattle. They dig it up with the left-hand before the riling of’
the fun ; for they believe it has greater virtue, when it is fo gathered.
The account they give of the way of ufing it is this : They draw a round
line with a brafen awl upon the broadeft part of the ear, fo that, when
the blood blues out of it, there may appear a fmall circle drawn like
the letter O. When this is done, both in the infide and on the upper
part of the ear, they pierce through with the fame awl the middle
part of the fmall circle which they have delcribed, and infert the fore-
faid fmall root into the hole they have made ; which when the frelh
wound has taken hold of, it holds it fo, that it cannot flip out. Then
all the ftrength of the difeafe, and the peftilential poifon, is drawn out
into that ear, till that part, round which the line was defcribed with
the awl, mortifles and falls out ; and, by the lofs of that very fmall part,
the head is preferved. Cornelius Celfus alfo orders us to pour into them
through their noftrils the leaves of miflelto bruifed with wine. Thefe
things muft be done, if all the cattle in general are fick, and thofe more¬
over, if any one in particular is out of order.

(i) Confiligo. The antiear ruftics called this herb by this name, became they found
it frequently growing among a fort of wheat they called fdigo. Vegetius lays, that it was
called pu'monaria, lungwort, becaufe it was a ipeedy relief to difeaies of the lungs in
cattle. Father Hardonin fays, that in France it is commonly called pomeU ?, which feetps-
to be a corruption of pulmonaria j and that fome herbal id; call it pata leojiis. See RueUius ,
lib. ii. p. 488. The Marfian mountains, where it was firft found, are in that part of ItsI) s,
which is now called Ducato de Marfi-, in the kingdom of Naples , and bordering upon the
Pope’s territories.

C H A P,

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY.

2 6j

CHAP. VI.

Of Remedies to be applied to Oxen, that are difordered with

Indigefion.

THE figns of crudity are frequent belchings, and rumbling noife
in their belly, naufieating of their food, contraction or ftiffnefs
of their nerves, dull heavy eyes ; becaufe of which the ox neither chews
his cud, nor licks or wipes himfelf with his tongue. Two congii of warm
water, and, prefently after, thirty ftalks of colewort, moderately boiled,
and dipped in vinegar, and given them, will cure them j but they muft,
for one day, abftain from other food.

Some keep the cattle fhut up in the houfe, that they may not feed.
Then they mix four pound weight of the tops of the maftic, and of the
wild olive-tree, and a pound of honey, bruifed together, with a con -
gius of water, which they keep for one night in the open air, and fo
pour it into their chops. Then, after the fpace of one hour, they lay
before them four pounds of bitter vetches fteeped in water, and keep
them from all other drink. This ought to be done for the fpace of three
days, till all the caufe of their languor be difeufled ; for, if the crudity
be negleCted, both an inflation of their belly, and a greater pain in their
bowels, follow upon it, which neither fuffers them to take their food,
nor to Hand in their place ; but draws groans from them, and forces
them to lie down frequently, and tofs their heads, and move their tails,
oftener than ufual. A fure remedy for this is to bind exceeding faft
with a cord that part of their tail, which is next to their buttocks, and
to pour a fextarius of wine, with an hemina of oil, down their throat,
and fo to drive them for fifteen hundred paces as faft as they can go.

If the pain {till continues, you mud cut their hoofs all round ; and,
having anointed your hand, put it into their anus, and pull out the
dung, and then drive them again, fo as to make them run ; or, if
this thing has had no good effeCt, they bruife dry wild figs, and give
them with three-fourths of a fextarius of warm water. When neither
this medicine has fucceeded, they choofe two pounds of wild myrtle-
tree-leaves, and mix them with as many fextarii of warm water, and
pour it into their chops with a wooden ladle, and fo they let them
blood under the tail, and, when they have bled enough, they flop the
blood with a rufh-binding. Then they drive the cattle again very hard,
till they be out of breath. There are alfo thofe following remedies

M m 2 before

268 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

before letting of blood : They mix three ounces of garlick, bruifed
in a mortar, with three hemince of wine ; and, after they give them this
potion, they force them to run: or they bruife two ounces of fait with
ten onions, and, having mixed well-boiled honey with them,, they make
them into fuppofitories, and adminifter then*, and then they drive the
ox full fpeed.

CHAP. VII.

With what Remedy the Fain of the Belly , and of the Intr-
ftines of Cattle , may be quieted,

THE pain, both of the belly and the inteftines, is alfwaged with
the fight of fwimming fowls, efpecially of a duck, which, if an
ox, which has a pain in any of his inteftines, looks upon, he is quickly
freed from the torment. The fame duck more effectually cures mules
and the horfe kind with her afpeCt : but fometimes no remedy is of
any benefit. Now follows the diftemper of the gripings or wringing of
the guts* of which a bloody and mucous loofenefs is the fign. The
remedies are fifteen cyprefs-cones, and as many galls, and of the weight
of both thefe a quantity of very old cheefe, which being bruifed into
one mafs, they mix four fextarii of rough wine with them, and dif-
penfe the fame to them in equal quantities for four days j nor let the
green tops of the maftich, myrtle, and wild olive-trees, be wanting. A.
loofenefs waftes their body, and their ftrength, and makes them unfit
for labour. When thefe things happen, the ox muft be reftrained from
drinking for three days ; and the firft day he muft be kept from food :
but, prefently after, you muft give him the tops of the wild olive-tree,
and the reed, alfo maftich, and myrtle-berries. Nor muft he have liberty
to drink water but exceeding fparingly.

There are fome who give them a pound of the ftalks or (hoots of a
tender young laurel or bay-tree, with an equal quantity of fteeped
fouthernwood, with two fextarii of warm water, and fo pour it down
their throat ; and throw the fame fodder before them as we mentioned
above. Some toaft two pounds of grape-ftones, and fo bruife them,
and, with as many fextarii of rough wine, give them as a medicine to
drink, and keep them from all other moifture whatfoever j and they
alfo throw the tops of the forefaid trees before them. But, if neither
the violent loofenefs ftops, nor the pain of the belly and inteftines abates,,

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 26g

and if he refufes his meat, and if his head is fo weighty, that he can¬
not bear it up, and tears flow from his eyes, and rheum from his
noftrils, oftener than ufual, let the middle of his forehead be burnt to
the bones, and his ears cut with a knife. But it is proper to rub with
ox’s urine the wounds that are made with fire, white they are healing;
butthofe that are cut with a knife, are better cured with pitch and oil.

CHAP. VIII,

Of a difempered Growth or Swelling of the Tongue.

DIftempered growings or fwellings of the tongue, which the Far¬
riers call frogs , ufe alfo to oecaflon loathings of their food. They
cut thefe off with a knife, and rub the wounds with fait and garlic
bruifed together, till the rheum is provoked, and runs- out of their
mouth. Then they wafh their mouth throughly with- wine, and, after
the fpace of one hour, they give them green herbs and leaves, till the
wounds that are made heal up, and form a fear. If the ox has neither
fwellings or pulhes in his tongue, nor a violent loofenefs, and, notwith-
danding, has no appetite for his meat, it will be of benefit to pour into
him, through his nodrils, garlic and oil beaten together in a mortar, or
to rub his chops with fait or favory ; or to anoint the fame part with
bruifed garlic and a pilchard. But thefe things are proper, if he only
have a loathing.

CHAP. IX.

Of the Fever of Oxen .

IT is proper, that an ox, that has a fever, fhould be kept from food
for one day, and then the next day be let a little blood under the
tail, when he is faffing ; and that, after the fpace of one hour, thirty
ftalks of colewort or cabbage of a moderate bignefs, dipped in oil,
and pickle made of fait fifh, be put down his throat in the manneE
of a drench ; and that this food be given him five days fading ; more¬
over, that the tops of the madich, or of the olive-tree, or the tendered
leaves of any fort, or the young leaves and fhoots of vines, be thrown

before

270 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

before him ; as alfo, that his lips be wiped with a fponge j and that cold
water be given hitn three times a day to drinks which phyfic ought to
be given him in the houfe, and the ox not to be let out, before he reco¬
vers his health. The figns that he is in a fever are, dropping tears, a
great heaviness, and hanging down of his head, compreffed eyes,
the faliva flowing from his mouth, drawing his breath more flowly
than ordinary, and with a certain impediment, and fometimes with
a groan.

CHAP. X.

Of the Cough of Oxen .

AFrefh cough is bed difcufled with a drench of barley-meal. Some¬
times grafs cut fmall, and bruifed beans mixed with it, are more
effectual. Alfo they mix two fextarii of lentils, taken out of their hulls,
and ground very fmall, with warm water ; and, having made a potion
therewith, pour it into them through an horn. Two pounds of hyffop,
macerated, or fteeped in three fextarii of water, cure an old cough j
for this medicine is bruifed, and given, with four fextarii of lentils
ground fmall, as I laid, in the manner of a drench j and then thehyf-
fop-water is poured into them through an horn. Alfo the juice of a
leek with oil, or the fibres themfelves bruifed with barley-meal, is a
remedy for it. The roots of the fame carefully wafhed, and beaten in
a mortar, with wheat-meal without bran, and given him faffing,
remove the oldeft cough. The bitter vetch, without hulks? ground
with toalfed barley, in equal quantity, and put down their chops, in
the manner of a drench, has the fame effed.

C H A P. XI.

Of Remedies for an Impofiume.

IT is better to open an impofiume with a lancet, than with a medi¬
cine ; and when the Jims itfelf, which contained it, is emptied, you
walh it with an ox’s warm urine, and bind it up with linaments loaked
in liquid pitch and oil $ or, if that part cannot be bound up, you mull

Chap. XII. Of HUSBANDRY. 27r

drop ox’s or goat’s tallow into it from a burning-hot plate of metal.
Some, after they have burnt the part affe&ed, wafh it with ftale urine;
and fo anoint it with liquid pitch, and old hogs-lard, or axle-tree
greafe, melted together in equal quantities.

CHAP. XIL

Of the Remedy to be applied to an Ox that is lame.

'"’fl 1 H E blood falling down to the feet occafions lamenefs. When1
this happens, you muft prefently examine the hoof, and by
touching it you know its burning heat : nor does the ox fuffer the
a£Fe<fted part to be vehemently prefled. But, if the blood be as yet in
the legs above the hoofs, you may difcufs it by frequent fri&ion ; or,
when this has been of no benefit, it is removed by fcarification. But,
if it is already in the hoofs, you mild open it gently with a knife be¬
tween the two hoofs. Afterwards you apply linaments foaked in fait
and vinegar, and then put a fhoe of Spani/i: broom on his foot ; and
you muft take great care, that he do not put his foot in water, and
that he be kept in a dry ftable.

This fame blood, unlefs it be let out, will breed putrified matter ;
and, if it turns to a fuppuration, it will be long before it be throughly
cured : and it is brought to a perfect cure, firft by cutting it round
with a knife, and cleanfingit throughly, and then by thrufting tentsin to
it wet with vinegar, fait, and oil, and afterwards with ftale hogs-lard,
or axle-tree greafe, and goats-tallow, boiled together in equal quantity.
If the blood is in the lower part of the hoof, you muft cut the ex¬
treme part of the hoof itfelf to the quick, and fo let it out ; and after
you have wrapt up the foot with linaments, fecure it with Spanijh
broom from receiving any hurt. It is not proper to open the middle
of the hoof on the lower part, unlefs the fuppuration is already begun
in that place. If he halts, and is lame from a pain in his nerves and
finews, his knees, hams, and legs, muft be rubbed with oil and fait,
till he be cured. If his knees be fwelled, they muft be fomented
with warm vinegar ; and you muft put linfeed, or bruifed millet,
fprinkled with honey-water, upon them. And it is right alfo to dip
fponges in boiling water, and then fqueeze the water out of them, and-
anoint them with honey, and apply them to his knees, and furround
them with bandages.

But,,

272 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

Bat, if there is fome humour under the fwelling, you muff put lea-
ven, or barley-meal boiled in raifin-wine or honey-water, upon it:
and, when the fuppuration is ripe, you muft open it with a lancet ; and,
after you have let it out, you cure it with linaments, as I taught you
before. The root of the lily, or a fquill with fait, or the blood-
herb, which the Greeks call Polygonon (i), or horehound, may (as
Cornelius Celfus directs) cure fores which have been laid open with the
lancet. But almofl every pain of the body, if it be without a wound,
is better difcufied, when it is frefh, with fomentations ; but an old
pain is -heft removed with burning, and dropping burnt butter, or the
fat of goats, upon it.

chap. xm.

Of the Remedies for curing the Scab , and the Bite of a mad
‘Bog or a Wolf \ and alfo for curing Hidebinding .

THE fcab is diminifhed with rubbing it hard with bruifed garlic ;

the bite of a mad dog is cured with the fame remedy, the
which neverthelefs is equally well cured, by putting a piece of old
faked fle(h or fifh upon the wound. And there is another more fpeedy
and effe&ual medicine for the fcab. Wild marjoram and fulphur are
bruifed together, and boiled in lees of oil mixed with oil, water, and
vinegar : then, when they are lukewarm, bruifed fciflile alum (x) is
fprinkled upon them. This medicine, if they be anointed with it in
the burning heat of the fun, will be of exceeding great benefit.

Bruifed galls are a remedy for ulcers. The juice of horehound with
foot is not lefs effectual. There is a plague that is troublefome to
ox-cattle j ru flics call it Hidebinding ; when the fkin flicks fo clofe to
their back, that, when they take hold of it with their hands, they can-

(i) Polygonon. Tim. Hifl. Nat. lib. xxvii. cap. 12. fays, that this herb has leaves like rue,
•and feed like grais, and that it has its name from the multitude of its feeds : it is alfo
called Proferpinaca. Father Hardouin fays, that the French call it Renouee , from its fre¬
quent knots and joints.

(i) /tinmen fciflum , or fciflile, as Cornelius Celfus calls it : the Greeks call it fchifton.
It is a kind of alum, as Diofcorides fays, which is not clofely compa&ed and condenfed
into a mafs, nor appears in folid pieces and chips, but which opens and divides itfelf, and
feparates into certain hoary capillaments, from which fome call it trichitin , or captllary
alum. Plin. Nat. Hifl. lib. xxxv. cap. 1 6. fays, that ic is made of the ftone they call chalcitis ,
copper-ftone, which was firft found in Cyprus : he fays, it is the fweat of that ftone coa¬
gulated into a froth. 1 fee fome call it flaky alum.

not

Chap. XIV. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 273

not remove it from their ribs. This thing happens by no other means,
but either by the ox’s being reduced to a lean habit of body by fome
kind of languor or other j or by his growing cold after lie has been in
a fweat in doing his work j or by his being wet with rain, when under
his load. And, becaufe thefe things are pernicious, you muft take care,
that when the oxen return from their work, they be fprinkled with
wine, while they are yet all in a heat, and breathe fhort, and that
lumps of fat be put into their chops. But if the forefaid difeafe cleaves
to them, it will be of benefit to boil laurel throughly, and, while it is
warm to foment their backs with it, and prefently to rub them with
much oil and wine j and that is belt done in the open air, when the
fun is very hot. Some mix a rnafh of fqueezed or prefled olives with
wine and fat, and ufe this medicine after the forefaid fomentations.

CHAP. XIV.

Of Remedies for ulcerated Lungs ^ and Swelling of the

Palate and Neck

There is alfo that grievous and deftrudtive di item per, when their
lungs are ulcerated ; hence a cough, and leannefs, and at laft a
■confumption attacks them : and that thefe things may not be the oc-
cafion of their death, you muft bore a hole in their ear, and infert
the root of lungwort into it, as we taught above ; alfo you muft mix
about an bemina of the juice of leeks with the like quantity of oil, and
give it them to drink with a fextarius of wine for feveral days.

Sometimes alfo the ox, by reafon of a fwelling of his palate, refufes
his food, groans frequently, and makes fuch an appearance, that he feems
to hang towards one fide. It is neceflary to lance his palate, that
the blood may flow out abundantly, and to give him bitter vetches
foaked in water, without their hulks and green leaves, or fome other
foft fodder, till he be cured.

If his neck be bruifed in doing his work, letting him blood in the
car is the moft fpeedy and effeftual remedy ; or if this is not done, an
herb, which they call avia( i), bruifed wit!) fait, and put upon it. If

(1) Avia. This herb is not defcribed by any author I have Teen. It is very probable,
this is not the right name. There are feveral emendations offered by critics; but their con¬
jectures are fo ill fupported, that it is better to leave it in uncertainty, than trouble the
reader with them.

N n h;s

274 L. J, M, COLUMELLA Book VI.

his neck be moved from its ulual pofture, and hangs down, we mart:
confider towards which fide it declines, and let him blood in the oppo-
fite ear. Moreover, we mud firft beat that vein in the ear, which
appears the largeft, with the fpray of a vine. Then, after it is fwelled
with the lafihes, you mull open it with a lancet ; and, the day after, let
him blood again in the fame place ; and let him reft from labour for
two days : then the third day you exadt fome eafy labour of him, and
by degrees bring him to perform his ordinary talk.

But if his neck declines to neither fide, and is fwelled in the middle,
you mull let him blood in both ears ; and, if blood be not let within
two days after the ox has received the hurt, his neck fwells, and the
nerves are ftretched ; and hence arifes an hardnefs which cannot en¬
dure the yoke. We have found for fuch an ailment a moft excellent
medicine compounded of liquid pitch, ox’s marrow, and goat’s tallow,
and old oil, in equal quantities, and boiled together. You muft ufe
this compofition thus. When the ox is loofed from his work, you
muft wet the fwelling of his neck with the water of that pond out of
which he drinks, and then dry it, and rub it, and anoint it with the
forefaid medicine. If he refufes the yoke intirely, becaufe of the fwell¬
ing of his neck, you muft give him reft from his labour for a few days.
Then his neck muft be rubbed with cold water, and anointed with the
l'cum of filver. Cel/us , indeed, orders the herb called avia to be'
bjuifed, as I laid before, and put upon his fwelled neck. There is
lefs trouble in fmall boils, which commonly infeft his neck : for it is
ealy to drop oil out of a lamp into them when he is at work. Never-
thelefs, ’tis a better way to take care, that they may not breed there,
and that their necks may not grow bald, which otherwife do not lofe
their hair, and become bare, but when their neck is either wet with
fweat or rain, while they are at their work. . Therefore, when this
happens, you muft rub one old brick againft another, and, with the
fmall duft that falls from them, fprinkle their necks before they are
unyoked : then, after this brick-duft dries upon the part, moiften it
with oil from time to time.

CHAP.

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY.

2 75

CHAP. XV.

Of curing their 'Pajlerns or Hoofs when they are hurt,

IF (i) the fock has hurt his pattern or hoof, burn upon the wound,
with a red-hot iron, hard pitch and hogs-lard, or axle-tree greafe,
wrapped up with fulphur, and new-fhorn greafy wool j which fame
remedy has a very good effectt, after you have taken a ttick or root out
-of the ox's foot, if by chance he has trodden upon a fprig or fpray,
or pierced his hoof through with a (harp tile, potlherd, or ttone ;
which, neverthelefs, if it be wounded to a greater depth, mutt be cut
all round with a knife, to a confiderable breadth, and fo have the lb
materials burnt upon it, as I directed above : then by putting a fhoe
<of 'Spdnifh broom upon his foot, and fprinkling vinegar upon it for
three days, it will be healed. Alfo, if the fock has wounded his leg,
you mutt put the fea-lettice, which the Greeks call TtS-J^aAos, mixed
with fait, upon it.

When his feet are worn and bruifed underneath, they mutt be
throughly wattied with ox’s urine warmed ; then you mutt fet fire to a
bundle of l'prays, and, when the fire falls to embers, you mutt force:
him to ttand upon the hot allies, and anoint his hoofs with liquid pitch
mixed with oil, or axle-tree greafe. Neverthelefs, oxen will be lefs
liable to be lame, if their feet are wafhed with plenty of cold water,
when they are unyoked from their work, and afterwards their patterns,
coronets, and alfo the cleft itfelf, which divides the hoof of the ox,
be rubbed with old hogs-lard, or axle-tree greafe.

CHAP. XVI.

Of Remedies for their fprained Shoulders , a?id broken Horns .

SOmetimes alfo the ox fprains his fhoulders, either with the weight
of his load in a long rugged way, or when in tilling he ttruggles
with very hard ground, or with the root of a tree that he meets with

(i) The firft fentence of this chapter feems to want fome words ; but the meaning is
-obvious, and the words that are wanting may very well be fupplied from Vegetius^ who
frequently copies Columellas own words, lib. iii. 4.

N n 2 ia

276 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

in his way. When this happens, you muft let him blood in his fore¬
legs ; if he has hurt his right Ihoulder, he muft be bled in the left leg ;
if his left, you muft bleed him in the right leg. If he has hurt both
his Ihoulders to a greater degree, you muft all'o open the veins of his
hinder legs.

When his horns are broken, you muft put linen clouts upon them,
leaked in fait, vinegar, and oil ; and, having bound them up, pour the
fame upon them for the fpace of three days. Then the fourth day you
muft put axle-tree greafe with liquid pitch in equal quantity, and pine-
tree bark fmoothed, upon them; and laft of all, when they have be¬
gun to form a fear, you muft rub them with foot.

Ui cers alfo, when neglefted, ufe to fwarm with worms ; which,
if in the morning they are fprinkled with cold water, fhrink and grow
ftiff with the cold, and fall out of them. Or, if they cannot be
taken out by this method, you muft bruife horehound, or leeks, and
mix fait with them, and put them upon the ulcers. This very quickly
kills the forel’aid animals. But the ulcers being throughly cleanfed,
you muft prefently apply linaments with pitch and oil, and ftale axle-
tree greafe, and the wounds muft be anointed all round on the outfide,
with the fame medicament, that they may not be infefted with flies,
which breed worms when they fettle upon ulcers.

CHAP. XVII.

Of Remedies agamft the Bitings of Serpentsy and other noxious

Animals .

7"^ HE bite of a ferpent alfo is mortal to oxen, and the poifon of
lefler animals alfo is hurtful to them : for both the viper, and
the floe- worm, provoked with his weight, when in the pafture the ox
has improvidently lain down upon them, often fallen their teeth on
him. And the fhrew-moufe, which the Greeks call fxvyctAy (1), altho’
its teeth are very fmall, is the occafion of no fmall mifehief to them.
The herb which they call Vipers Buglofs (2), bruifed and laid with

( 1) Some fay ir is fo called, quia lv. p>.uoc y**»{ yivtjMj becaufe it is of .

a moufe and a weafel.

(2) Perfonata. Plin. Nat. Hifi. lb. xxv. cap. 9. fays, that echion , vipers buglofs, is
called by this name, and recommends it, among ocher things, againft the bitings of fer¬
ments. He fays, that no herb has a broader leaf, and chat it produces great burs.

fait

Chap. XVII. Of HUSBANDRY. 277

fait upon the fcarifkation made with a knife, drives away the poifon
of the viper. The root alfo of the fame, bruifed, is more effe&ual ; or
Simonian Trefoil (3), that which is found in rough craggy places, is faid
to be the moil effectual : it is of a very difagreeable fmell, and not un¬
like bitumen j. and therefore the Greeks call it Afphaltion : but ouf
people,, becaufe of its fhape, call it Trifolium acutum, iharp trefoil j
for it grows up with long and briftly leaves : it makes a ftronger ftalfc
than that which grows in meadows. They pour the juice of this her^>,
mixed with wine, into their chops ; and fpread the leaves themfelves
bruifed with fait, in the manner of a pultefs, upon the fcarificatiom
Or, if the feafon of the year does not afford this green herb,' they ga¬
ther the feeds of it, and fmooth them, and give them with wine to
drink j and they put upon the fcarifkation the roots of it bruifed with
its own ftalk, and mixed with meal and fait, after they have been
foaked in honey-water. It is alfo a fpeedy and effe&ual remedy, if
you bruife five pound weight of the tops of afh, with as many fextarii
of wine, and . two of oil, j and, after you have fqueezed out the juice,
pour it into their chops : alfo you may put the tops of the fame tree,
bruifed with fait, upon the part that is hurt.

The bite of a floe-worm caufes a fwel ling and fuppuration : that
of a fhrew-moufe has the fame effect. But the hurt fuftained by the
firft is cured with. a brazen awl, if you prick the place that is hurt
with it, and anoint it with Cimolian chalk, or clay (4), foaked in vine¬
gar. The moufe pays with her own body for the mifchief it has been
the caufe of j for they plunge the animal itlelf into oil, and kill it $ and,
after it is putrified, they bruife it, and with that medicine they anoint
the part that is bitten by the fhrew-moufe : or, if that cannot be had,
and the humour thews the hurt that its teeth have done, they bruife
cumin, and add a little liquid pitch, and hogs-lard, or axle-tree
greafe, to it, that it may have the clamminefs of a pultefs : this put
upon it removes the mifchief : or if, before the fwelling is difcuffed,
it turns to a fuppuration, it is heft to cut off all the fuppurated part

(3) Simonianum trifolium, fo called from Si mu: a phyfician, who probably firft found
out the qualities cf this fort of trefoil. Pliny makes mention of him, and by his authority
lupporrs his opinion, that this fort of trefoil has fomething of a poifonous quality ; for he
fays, that if cither a deco&ion of ir, or the juices ot it bruifed, be poured into the body,
it will occafion the fame burnings and itchings, as it does when it is laid upon the wound
made by the bice of a ferpent j and advifes not to ufe it bur againft the poilons of ferpents,
where Pliny fuppofes it may operate, as one fort of poifon does againft another.

(4) Cimolia creta , a kind of chalk or fullers earth, which is found in the illand Citnolus ,
which is one of the illands the ancients called Sporades : it lies in the Cretian fea, and is by
rhe inhabitants ftill called Kimoio , tho’ it feems ibcVenrtians have changed its name, and
call it Arientiera.

with

278 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

with a burning-hot lamin, and to burn all the afletfted part with an
hot iron, and fo anoint it with liquid pitch and oil. They alfo ufe
to wrap up the animal itfelf alive in potters clay, and, after it is dried,
to hang it at the neck of the oxen. That thing preferves the cattle
from receiving any hurt from the bite of a fhrew-moufe.

Difeafes or blemifhes in their eyes are for the moft part cured with
honey : for, if either they are fwelled, they fprinkle honey-water
upon wheat-flour ; and put it upon them, or, if there be a white fpot
or web in the eye, mountain fait (5), or Spanifh fait, or ammoniac (6),
or Cappadocia?! i\ alt (7) alfo, bruifed very fmall, and mixed with honey,
diminifhes the blemifh. The fhell of the cuttle-fifh bruifed, and
blown into the eye thrice a day through a reed, has the fame effefti
‘The root, which the G?*eeks call Silphion , but the common people,
according to the cullom of our country, call Laferpitiumy Laferwort,
does the fame. To any quantity whatfoever of this, they add ten
parts of fal ammoniac, and thtow them likewife into the eye, after
they have been bruifed in the fame manner : or the fame root bruifed,
and mixed with the oil of maftich, and put upon the eye, purges away
the blemifhes. Barley-meal foaked in water, and dried at the fire, and
lprinkled with honey- water, and put upon their eyebrows and cheeks,
fupprefles an inflammation and fluxion in their eyes ; and the feeds of
the wild parfnip, and the juice of the wild radifh, with honey, affwage
the pain of the eyes, when they are anointed therewith. But when¬
ever honey, or any other juice, is applied with remedies, the eye mufl
be anointed all round with liquid pitch and oil, that it may not be in-
fefled by the flies j for not thefe only, but bees alfo, fly to the fweet-
nels of honey, and other medicines.

(O Sal montanusy by Vegetius called fojjil fait , becaufe it is dug out of pits or quar¬
ries upon mountains, where it is cut like llone out of quarries.

(6) Sal atnmomacus , fo called, as Tliny tells us, becaule it is found under the fands in
great quantity, in the fandy deferts of Africa , especially in the Cyrenian tradls : therefore
it has its name, not from the place where Jupiter Hatnwon's temple flood, but from the
fand where-ever it is found.

(7) Sal Cappadocius. Pliny mentions two forts of fait found in Cappadocia , one fort
formed in the extreme parts of a lake, where the water is condenfed into fait by the heat
of the fun ; and another fort dug out of the mountains in very great quantities, and in
.great lumps.

CHAP.

Chap. XIX. Of HUSBANDRY.

279

CHAP. XVIII.

Of Remedies to be given them when they have fwallowed an
HorJ' e-leech with their W ater .

AN horfe-leech alfo, fwallowed with their water, is often the caufe
of great mifehief. This, flicking to their jaws, fucks the blood,
and by its growth fhuts up the paffage for their food. If it is in a place
fo difficult to come at, that it cannot be pulled away with the hand,
put a pipe or reed into it, and fo pour warm oil into it : for., when¬
ever this touches it, the animal falls off. Alfo the fmell of a burnt
bug may be conveyed into it through a pipe ; for the bug, when it is
put upon the fire, fends forth a fmoke, and the pipe conveys the burn¬
ing fmell, that it attracts as far as the horfe-leach j and that fmell drives
it away, and makes it quit its hold. If, neverthelefs, it takes hold,
either of the ftomach, or intefiines, it is killed with hot vinegar poured ;
into them through an horn. Although we have directed thefe medi¬
cines to be applied to oxen, neverthelefs there is no doubt, but very
many of them are alfo proper for all forts of greater cattle.

CHAP. XIX.

Of a Machine in which Cattle are flout up when their Sores .

are dreffed 1

BUT a machine alfo muff be framed, wherein horfes and oxen
may be fhut up and dreffed, and that they who have the cattle
under cure, may have nearer accefs to them, and that the four-footed
bealf may not, by ffruggling againft them, refufe the remedies at the
very time they are dreffing him. And this is the form of fuch a ma¬
chine : You muff lay a firm compadt floor upon the ground with oaken
planks, of nine feet in length j and let the fore-part have two feet and
an half in breadth j and the hinder-part four feet. Upon this floor you
mud fix on both fides of it four upright pofis of feven feet. More¬
over, you muff fallen fuch of them as are in the very four corners to
one another. And bind them all to each other with fix crofs-poles, as
if they were rails, fo that the four-footed bead; may be brought into

it

280 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

it at the hinder-part where it is broadeft, as into a cage, and may not be
able to go out at the other end, the fmall oppofite planks, hindering
him. But upon the two firft eredt ports you muft place a ftrong yoke
or beam, to which horfes may be tied with an halter, or the horns of
the oxen be faftened ; where you may alfo frame ftocks or collars, that,
after their head is put into them, their neck may be held fart by
rulers, or pins defcending through holes made in them : the reft of
their body is bound fart, being intangled and diftended with the poles
that are laid acrofs, fo that the beaft is expofed to the will and pleafure
of him that has him under cure, without being able to move. This very
machine fhall be common for all four-footed hearts of a larger fize.

CHAP. XX.

Of the Form and Shape of a BulL

FOrafmuch as we have given you fufficient inftrudtions -concerning
oxen, it will be proper and convenient now to fpeak of bulls
and cows. I am of opinion, that bulls are moft to be approved, which
have the largeft members, are of a gentle difpofition, and good-natured,
and of a middle age as to other things, we .muft obferve almoft the
fame diredtions in chufing them, as in chufing oxen. For in no other
thing does a good bull differ from one that is caftrated, but that he has
a grim, ftern countenance, a more lively, brifk afpedt, fhorter horns,
a more brawny neck, and fo huge, that it makes the greateft part of
his body, with a fomewhat lanker and more trufled up belly j and
that he is more ftraight, and fitter for coupling with the females.

C H A P. XXI.

• '

Of the Form or Shape of a Cow.

COWS alfo are approved, which are of the talleft make, and long,
with very great bellies, exceeding broad foreheads, black, wide,
and full eyes, beautiful horns, that are both fmooth, and inclining to
black, hairy ears, flat, comprefled cheek-bones, exceeding large dew¬
laps and tails, moderately fmall hoofs and legs. As to other things,
almoft the fame are required in the females as in the males, .and efpe-

cially.

Chap. XXII. Of HUSBANDRY. 281

cially, that they be young ; becaufe when they are above ten years
old, they are ufelefs for breeding. On the other hand, they muft not
be put to the bull when they are under two years old : if, neverthelefs,
they conceive before, I think it proper, that their young be taken from
them, and that during three days their udders be emptied, that they
may not be in pain, and that afterwards they be intirely removed from
the milk-pail.

CHAP. XXII.

Of reviewing and picking the Cattle every Tear.

BUT you muft take care to review every year this fort of cattle,
as well as all other herds and flocks whatfoever, and to pick
them carefully : for, both fuch as have brought forth young, and are
old, and have left off breeding, muft be removed ; and alfo fuch as
have never been with young, which take up the place of thofe that
are fruitful, muft be baniftied from the herd, or broken for the plough ;
for, by reafon of the barrennefs of their womb, they can endure la¬
bour and fatigue no lefs than bullocks.

This kind of cattle deflres to have their winter quarters upon the
fea coaft, and expofed to the fun ; and in the fummer delights more
in the darkeft recedes of woods, and tops of mountains, than in plain
paftures : for their hoofs are better hardened (j) in grafly woods and
thickets, and fedge-plots, than in ftony places. Nor have they fuch a
defire for rivers and brooks, as for pools made by hand ; becaufe river-
water, which is commonly colder, makes them caft their calves, and
rain-water is fweeter. Neverthelefs, all cows whatfoever can endure
external cold, better than horle-cattle of any kind : therefore they eafily
pafs the winter in the open air.

(1) Durantur uvgula. There is very great rea fan to think, as Pontedera obierves, that
the text is corrupted in this place ; for it cannot be, that their hoofs are better hardened
in watery places, marfhes, and fens, than upon hard and rocky mountains ; far Varro ,
hbii. cap. 8. fays, that mules, bred in marfay and oufy places, have i'oft hoofs j but if they
be driven in the fummer- time to the mountains, as in the territory of Reate , their hoofs
become exceeding hard : and Columella himfelf fays, lib. vii. cap. 37. that it is fit to re¬
move a mule from its dam when it is one year old, and fend it to the mountains to
harden irs hoofs ; fo that it feems necefiary to read it Jaturantur juvenca. Thar grafly
woods and marfhes afford better pafture for heifers. And this is evident from the follow¬
ing words, which are more fuitable to this amendment. Ge/herus thinks, that it comes
near to the common reading, to change it to durant javencultei

O o CHAP,

282

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI,

CHAP. XXIII.

Of making Inclofures and Stables ,

BUT you muft make inclofures for them in a wide fpace, that fo,
in ftrait and narrow places, the one may not crufh the other,
and make her call her calf, and that the weak may be able to avoid
the blows of the ftronger. Stables that are laid with great rough (tones,
or round pebbles, are the beft : neverthelefs, fuch as are laid with
gravel alfo, are not incommodious ; thofe, becaufe they throw off
and refufe the (howers ; and thefe, becaufe they fuck them up quickly,
and let them pafs through. But let them both be (loping, that they
may throw off the moifture ; and let them look to the fouth, that they
may dry eafily, and not be expofed to cold winds.

Pafture-grounds require but very little care ; for, that the grafs may
thrive the better, and fpring up in greater plenty, commonly in the
latter end of the fummer they fet k on fire : this both makes tenderer
new grafs to fpring up again, and the thorns and briars being burnt,
it checks the (hrubs and herbs with great (talks, which would rife to
a great height. But fait, thrown upon rocks and troughs near the in-
clofure, contributes to the health of their bodies : to this they willingly
have recourfe, after they have filled their bellies, when with the pafto-
ral fignal there is as it were a retreat founded. For this ought always
to be done towards the twilight, that fo, at the found of the horn, the
cattle, if any of them remain kill in the woods, may accufiom them-
felves to return to their inclofures ; for fo the whole herd may be re¬
viewed, and their number reckoned up, if, according to military dif-
cipline, as it were, they abide within the quarters afligned them by
the keeper of the ftables. But the fame power and authority is not
exercifed over bulls, which, relying upon their great ftrength, wander
through the woods, and have free egrefs and ingrefs, and return when
they pleafe, and are not called back, unlefs it be to couple with the
females.

CHAP.

Chap. XXIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 263

CHAP. XXIV.

Of the Age fit for a Bull to couple with the Female .

SUCH of the bulls as are younger than four, and older than twelve
years, are not allowed t6 couple with the females : thofe, becauie
of their puerile age, as it were, are reckoned not very fit for railing a
new breed, and increafing the herd ; thefe, becaufe they are worn out
with old age, and paft gendering. In the month of 'July^ for the moil
part, the females mull be allowed to be with the males, that fo the next
fpring, when the forage is grown up, they may bring forth the young
they conceived at that time. For they go with young ten months,
nor do they fuffer the male at the command of their keeper, but of
their own accord j and for the moil part their natural defires anfwer
to the time I have mentioned, becaufe the cattle, being exhilarated with
the fuperabundance of vernal forage, grow lalcivious. But if either
the female refufes, or the male has no defire, their defire is railed by
the fame method we {hall prefently direct with refpett to horfes which
difdain the female, viz. by conveying the fmell of their genitals to
their noftrils.

But you mull with-hold a part of their fodder from the females
about the time you put them to the male, left the too great fatnefs of
their body make them barren ; and ^ou muft add to the bulls allow¬
ance, that they may be the ftronger for gendering j and one male may
abundantly fuffice for fifteen cows : and when he has leapt upon an
heifer, you may know, by certain figns, which fex he has generated ;
becaufe, if he leapt off at the right fide, it is manifeft he has gendered
a male ; if at the left fide, a female. Neverthelefs, that does not ap¬
pear to be true, otherwife, but when, after one coition, being with
calf, ftie does not afterwards admit the bull ; ’which very thing rarely
happens. For, altho’ {he be with young, yet her luft is not fully fa-
tisfied : fo mighty powerful even in cattle, beyond the bounds of nature,
are the flattering allurements of pleafure. But there is no doubt,
where there is great plenty of fodder, that a cow may have a calf,
and bring it up every year ; but, when there is a fcarcity of forage,
ftie ought to be put upon breeding every other year, which we are of
opinion ought to be done, efpecially with refpedt to cows that are put
to labour, that fo the calves may be fatiated with milk for thefpace of
one whole year ; and that the cow which is with calf may not be

O o i grieved

284 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

grieved and oppreffed with the burden both of her belly and her work
at the fame time : and after fhe has brought forth her young, unlefs
/he be fufficiently fupported with food, tho’ (he be a good nurfe, yet,
being fatigued with labour, /lie with-holds from her fon a great part of
his nourifhment. Therefore they give her, after fhe has calved, green
CytifuSy (fhrab-trefoil) and parched barley, and foaked bitter vetches ;
or they give her a drench of young colejvort, and toafted and ground
millet (1), and foaked in milk for one night, mixed together. The
Altinian cows (2) all'o, which the inhabitants of that country call Ce-
vas (3), are more e deemed for thefe ufes. Thefe are of a low ftature,
and yield abundance of milk ; for which reafon, their own offspring,
being removed from them, are brought up and educated at the udders
of thole that are aliens and utter Grangers to them : or, if this relief
is not at hand, bruifed beans and wine fuftain them very well ; and
this mud be done efpecially in great herds.

CHAP. XXV.

Of Remedies for Worms in Calves .

BUT worms, which commonly breedin crudities, are ufually hurtful
to calves ; therefore they mud be moderately fed, that they may
diged well : or, if they labour already under fuch an indifpofition, they
bruife parboiled lupins, and thrud morfels of them down their throats in
the manner of a drench. Alfothe herb Santonicay (wormwood of Sain-
tonge ) may be bruifed together with dry figs and bitter vetches, and
made into fops, and put down their throats, as if it were a drench. One
part of greafe, mixed with three parts of hydop, has the fame effedfc.

(1) Tenero o/ert , et extera? falivatur. From the different readings of this fentence,
Pontedera is of opinion, that it ought to be corrected thus ; Et tener vitvlus torrido mo/i~
toque miliOy &c. falivatur. This correction is not improbab'e } for Pal/adiusx who copies
from Columella , fays, that toafted and ground millet, mixed with milk, ought to- be given
them in the manner of a drench.

(a) Alt in* vacca. Pliny, lib. viii. c. 45. mentions vacraAlpin* ; and Father Har doubt
lakes occalion there to correct this place of Colu?nell*y and fays, that it ought to be read
xacctcAlpin* y for if the author had meant, that they had their name from Altbia , a town
in Italy , they would have been called '■jacc*Ahinateni and accordingly Columella^ lib. vii.
t. a. has oxesAltinates.

(3.) Cevas. Gefnerus thinks, that this word is almoft the fame with k* bey or Jcuvoey
the German or Siui/s word for vaccay a cow ; and the author might mean, cows brought
out of Swijjerland for the purpofe mentioned in the text.

Alfo

Chap. XXVI. Of HUS Bi A N: D R Y. 285

-Alfo the juice of horehound, and of the leek, is cfte&ual for killing
animals of this fort.

CHAP. XXVI.

Of caft rating Calves.

fUfAGO is of opinion, that calves fhouldJbe caftrated \vhile~they are
yet very young ; and advifes not; to do it with a knife, but to com-
prefs their tefticles with cloven fennel-giant, and to bruife them by
degrees ; and he thinks, that of ‘all -ways of caftrating, that is the beft,
which is performed upon the young and tender age, without a wound ;
for, when the calf is already grown ftrong, and the parts hardened, it
is better to caftrate him when he is two years old, than when he is
one. And he directs to do it either in the fpring; or in autumn, when
the moon is decreafing, and to bind the calf to a machine ; then, before
you apply the knife, to take hold with two wooden rules (as it were
with a pair of pincers) of the firings of the tefticles, which the Greeks
call'xgg/Ka<r%w (i), f°r this reafon, becaufc the genital parts hang by
them ; and, having taken faft hold of them, prefently to lay open the
tefticles with a knife ; and, after you have fqueezed them out, to cut
them in fuch manner, that the extreme part may be left flicking to
the forefaid firings : for, by this method, the (leer is neither .-endan¬
gered Jby the eruption of the blood, nor intirely emafcukted, by taking
away all his virility; but, preferving the form of a male, he lays down
his power of gendering, which, neverthelefs, he does not prefently lole ;
for, if you fuffer him, after he is newly cailrated, to couple with the
female, it is manifeft fhe may conceive by him. But that is not at
all to be permitted, left he perifh by a large effufion of blood ; but
you muft anoint his wounds with fpray-afties, and the fcum of filver ;
and you muft keep him that day from water, and nourifh him with
very little food. The three following days you muft folace and eherifh
him, as if he were lick, with tops of trees, and green fodder cut down
for him, and reft rain himfrom much drinking. Iadvifeyou alfo to anoint
the wounds themfelves, after three days, with liquid pitch and afties,
with a little oil, that they may both dole, and form a fear the more
quickly, and not be infefted by the flies. What vve have faid thus far
of oxen is abundantly enough.

(1) Cremafters, from fufttndo.

CHAP.

286

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

CHAP. XXVII.

Of Horfes .

IT is highly proper, that they who have the bringing up of the
horfe-kind much at heart, (hould provide an indufirious keeper,
and plenty of forage, both which, fuppofe they be but indifferent and
ordinary, may ferve for other cattle. But horfe-cattle requires the
greateft diligence and attendance, and a large quantity of food, even at
much as they can eat. This kind is divided into three forts ; for there
is a noble generous breed, which furnifhes horfes for the Circus , and
the Sacred Games. There is the mule-breed, the foals of which are
purchafed at a noble price. There is alfo the vulgar breed, which pro¬
duces indifferent and ordinary males and females. The more excel¬
lent each of thefe forts is, the more plentiful and rich field they have
affigned to them for their pafture. But, for herds of this kind of cattle,
fpacious, marfhy, and alfo mountainous paftures, mufl be chofen *
fuch as are well watered, and never naturally dry j rather free from
any kind of trees or fhrubs, than intangled and incumbred with them ;
abounding in very thick and foft, rather than in high grafs.

Vulgar ordinary horfes, both male and female, are allowed to feed
together promifcuoufly ; nor are there any certain times obferved for
putting the males and females together. Let the males be joined to
the females, of a noble and generous race, about the time of the ver¬
nal iEquinox, that fo foaling at the fame time of the year wherein
they conceived, they may bring up their foals with little labour, the
fields being now verdant, and abounding in grafs after the harveft is
gathered in ; for they bring forth their young in the twelfth month.
Therefore great care muft be taken, at the forefaid time of the year,
that both the mares and the ftallions may have full liberty to couple,
when they have a defire to it ; becaufe this kind of cattle, efpecially
if you reftrain them, is extimulated by the furious ragings of lull ;
and it is for that reafon, that the name Hippomanes (i) is given to that
poifon, which kindles in mortals a fire of love, like the libidinous de-
lires of horfes. Nor is there any doubt, but, in fome countries, the

(i) Hippomanes, dirt (xetyias fairs. P/in. Hijl. Nat. lib. viii. 42. fays, that this
is an excreicence in the forehead of a foal, at the time it is foaled, which was a principal
ingredient in philtres, and other poifonous draughts. They who have the curiofity to know
more of it, may conlult Pliny and Arijlotle. Virgil alfo, in his 4th JEmid, and in fome
other places, makes mention of it.

I

mares

Chap. XXVII, O/HUSBANDRY. 287

mares are inflamed with fuch a ftrong and ardent defire of coition, that,
altho’ they have not the male, yet, by their continual and exceflive
defire, railing in themfelves the imagination of venery, they (in the
manner of fowls conftantly kept in a barton) conceive with the wind :
which things the poet exprefles with greater licence (2) :

* But, more than all, remarkable and ftrange

* The fury of the mares : fair Venus' felf

* Gave them this bent of mind, juft at the time

‘ When the four Potnian mares, which drew the car

* Of Glaucus , all his limbs in pieces tore

‘ With their devouring jaws. Them Cupid leads
‘ O’er Gargarusf and o’er the founding ftream
i Of loud Afcanius : they o’er the tops

* Of mountains climb, and over rivers fwim,

* Still in their tender marrow lurks the flame,

* And new defires arife, which, in the fpring,

* More ardent grow ; for then the genial heat
« Into their bones returns then to weft winds
‘ All turn their heads, and on the lofty rocks

* Stand paufing, and the light and cooling breeze

* Snuff up j and often by the wind conceive,

* Without the male, (too wondrous to relate ! )

‘ Then over rocks, and hills, and dales, they fly :

‘ Not where, Eaji Wind ! thou firft beginn’ft to blow,

‘ Nor where the fun firft rears his radiant head j

* But whence the north and north-weft winds arife,

‘ And fouth wind, which, with blackeft darknefs clad,

‘ With cold and rains, makes fad the chearful day. ’

Forafmuch as it is a thing alfo very well known, that on the Sacred
Mountain in Spain ( 3), which extends itfelf toward the weft, hard
by the ocean, mares have frequently been pregnant without coition,

and-

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. iii. 2 66.

(3) Monte Sacro. Varro fays, that this happens upon mount Tagrut in Portugal, near
Lisbon, hard by the ocean. Pliny alfo mentions this fable, and fays, that it was a thing
which was well known to happen upon the river Tagus near Lisbon, &c. It cannot but
feem ftrange, that fuch grave authors fhould mention this as a thing to be depended on.
Virgil, indeed, is to be excufed, who, as a poet, might indulge his own fancy. But Juflin
fpeaks more rationally, and fays, that many authors indeed had delivered it as a truth ; buc
that it was only a fable, which had its rife from the fruitfulnefs of marcs, and the vail mul ■
titude of horfes, in Galticia and Lujitania, which are fo numerous, and fo fvvifr, that not

without

2 8 8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

and have brought up their offspring ; which neverthelefs is of no ufe,
becaufe it is fnatched away by death when three years old, before it
comes to maturity.

Wherefore, as I have faid, we muff take care, that mares be not
tormented with their natural defires, about the time of the vernal
./Equinox. But, during the reft of the year, you muft remove from
the females the horfes of great value, that they may neither cover them
when they have a mind to it, nor fuffer harm, if they are reftrained
-from doing it, when they are folicited by their natural defires : there¬
fore I am of opinion, that the male ought either to be fent out of the
vway into very diftant paftares, or kept at his manger. And, at the
time when he is invited by the females, he muft be ftrengthened with
a large allowance of food ; and, when theffpring approaches, you muft
pamper him with barley and bitter vetches, that he rmay endure the
fatigue of venery ; and the ftronger he is for this talk, fo much the
ftronger feminal principles will he communicate to his 'future offspring.

Some alfo diredt us to fatten a ftallion (4) in the fame manner we do
mules, that fo, being heartened by this good keeping, he may fuffice
for very many females. Neverthelefs, one ftallion ought not to im¬
pregnate lefs than fifteen, nor more than twenty mares. And 'he may
be made ufe of for this purpofe when he is three years old j and for
the moft part he is fit for it till he is twenty. But if the ftallion is
lazy, and backward to perform his part, they pafs a fponge over the
parts of the female, and convey the fmell to the horfes noftrils, by
rubbing him with the fame. On the other hand, if the mare will
.jiot fuffer the male, they anoint her natural parts with bruifed fquills,

• which thing kindles her luft. Sometimes alfo a vulgar ignoble horfe
raifes in them a defire of coition ; for, when he is let into her, and
has almoft brought her to a compliance, they take away the female,
and, now fhe is become more paflive, they put a horfe of a nobler
breed upon her. From the time they are pregnant, greater care muft
be taken of them, and they muft be ftrengthened with plentiful paftu res:
and if with the cold of winter the grafs lhall fail, let them be kept in

’■without reafon they may feem to be conceived by the wind. Some authors think, that
both in our author, and in Varro, the true reading is, Monte Artabro. Pliny, indeed, fays,
that in this place of the country there is a vaft promontory, which runs out into the ocean,
which feme called Artabrum, lib. iv. 21. Perhaps it was called the Sacred Mount, from
lbme famous temple that flood there.

(4) Adm'Jfarium fagmare eodem modo quo mulos. Pontedera thinks, that inftead of mu-
los we ought to read tauros ; for, as mules do not propagate, it is not probable the author
had his eye upon them : bur both Varro and Columella , and other ancient authors, diredl
us to pamper bulls gt a certain feafon, and keep them apart from the cows til! the proper
time.

the

Chap. XXVIII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 2S9

the houfe, and neither be employed in working, nor running, nor ex-
pofed to the cold, nor {hut up in a narrow confined place, left one
make the other caft her foal ; for all thefe inconveniences have this
effect.

But if the mare has fuffered, either in foaling, or by abortion, rock-
fern bruifed, and throughly mixed with lukewarm water, and given
through a horn, will be a remedy for her. But, if all has fucceeded
well, the foal muft by no means be handled j for he is hurt even by
the lighted: touch : only care muft be taken, that he keep with the
dam in a large and warm place, left either the cold hurt him, while
he is yet weak, or his mother fqueeze and bruife him in a narrow
ftraight place. Then you muft bring him out, by little and little, and
take care that he do not parch his hoofs with the dung. When he is
grown ftronger, he muft be prefently fent out into the fame paftures
where his mother is, left the mare be in pain for want of her foal.
For this kind of cattle efpecially, catches hurt from the love they have
to their young, unlefs they be allowed to have them in their company.
It is ufual for a vulgar mare to bring a foal every year ; it is proper to
reftrain one of a noble breed every other year, that fo her foal, grow¬
ing ftronger with his mothers milk, may be prepared for the labours
of the public games.

CHAP. XXVIII.

Of the Age of a Stallion.

THEY think, that a male younger than three years is not fit for
a ftallion ; but that he may procreate till his twentieth year j
and that a female of two years old may very well conceive, that fo,
foaling after her third year, {lie may bring up her foal ; and that fhe
is ufelefs after her tenth year, becaufe the breed of an old mare is flow
and fluggifh. Democritus affirms, that it depends upon our own pleafure,
whether a male or a female be conceived : and he diredts, that when
we>have a mind that a male fhould be procreated, we fhould bind the
ftallion’s left tefticle with a fmall flaxen cord, or with any other cord
whatfoever j and when we would have a female, the right tefticle.
And he is of opinion, that the lame thing ought to be done with almoft
all cattle whatfoever.

pp

CHAP.

290

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VL

CHAP. XXIX.

Of the Temper , Difpofition , of an Hcrfe.

Bur when a foil is foaled, we may prefently judge of its temper
and difpofition. If it is chearful, if intrepid, if it is neither
frightened at the fight, nor with the hearing of any new thing ; if it
runs before the herd ; if in wantonnefs and chearfulnefs, and l'ome-
times in running a race, it furpafles all its equals ; if it leaps over a
ditch, or crofles a river, or a bridge, without flopping ; thefe things
will be documents of the noble, ingenuous difpofition of his mind.

But the form of his body will appear by his very fmall head, black
eyes, wide noftrils, fliort and flraight eredt ears ; his foft and broad,
but not long neck ; thick mane, hanging down and fpreading upon the
right fide ; broad and well-proportioned breaft, with brawny and regu¬
larly- fwelling mufcles ; large and flraight fhoulders ; infledted or bend¬
ing fides ; double back-bone ; lank and trufled-up belly ; two equal
and very fmall tefticles ; broad and fubfiding loins j a long briftly and
curled tail ; equal, tall, and flraight legs; around and fmall knee, and
not looking inwards ; round buttocks ; brawny, mufculous, and well-
proportioned thighs ; hard and high, and hollow and round hoofs, upon
which middling coronets are placed ; and his whole body fo compactly
formed, as to be majeflic, tall, eredt, and from its afpedt nimble and
active alfo ; and, as much as its figure, or natural fhape, permits, with
a tendency from long to round. But that temper and thefe manners
are commended, which from gentle and quiet become fiery and eager,
and, from being fiery and eager, return again to be exceeding gentle
and calm : for fuch as thefe are found to be more yielding and tractable,
and exceeding patient of the labour and fatigue of the public games.

It is right to break an horfe for domeftic ufe, when he is two years
old ; but, for the public games, when he is three years complete ; fo,
neverthelefs, that he be put to labour after his fourth year at fartheft.
The marks of his years change with his body ; for, while he is two
years and fix months old, his upper and lower middle-teeth fall : when
he is going in his fourth year, having call thofe that are called the
canine teeth, he brings others; then, within the fixth year, his upper
jaw-teeth or grinders fall. In his fixth year he fills up and makes
even thofe teeth he firft changed. In his feventh year they are all
filled up equally, and from that time he carries them hollowed : nor
afterwards can it be certainly known how many years old he is. Ne¬
ss • i; 'j i ■ rr ver-

Chap. XXX. Of HUSBANDRY. 291

verthelefs, in his tenth year his temples begin to grow hollow, and
fometimes his eye-brows to grow grey, and his teeth to ftick out. I
reckon, that what I have already faid, relating to his mind, temper,
and manners, and his body and age, may abundantly fuffice. Now'
our next bufinefs is to {hew the care that is to be taken of them, both
when they are in a good and in a bad ftate of health.

CHAP. XXX.

Of the Care of Horfes , and of Medicines proper for the?n.

IF horfes in good health are lean, they are more fpeedily reftored'
and made up again, with parched wheat, than with barley. But a
potion of wine muft alfo be given them, and then you mud with¬
draw this fort of food from them by degrees, mixing bran with their
barley, till they be accuftomed to live upon beans, and pure barley.
The bodies of horfes muft be daily rubbed down no lefs than thofe of
men : and oftentimes your having curried them, and rubbed their backs
as hard as you can, is of more benefit to them, than if you fhould
give them the largeft allowance of food ; but it is of great importance
to preferve the ftrength of their body and feet, both which we may
maintain, if we lead the cattle at proper times to their mangers, to
water and to exercife j and take care that they be ftabled in a dry
place, that their hoofs may not grow moift with wet, which we {hall
eafily avoid, if either the ftables are laid with oak-planks, or if the
ground be carefully cleaned, and ftraw thrown upon it.

For the moft part, labouring horfes contract difeafes from wearinefs,
and violent heat ; fometimes alfo from cold, and from their not having
made water at their own time ; or if they are in a fweat, and drink
prelently after their having been in a violent motion : or if, after they’
have ftood long, they are all of a fudden fpurred and galloped. Ref
is a cure for lahitude, if fo be that oil, or fat mixed with wine, be'
poured into their chops. To a cold, fomentations are applied, and
their head and back-bone are anointed with warm greafe or wine. Tlje
remedies are almoft the fame, if he does not make water : for they
pour oil mixed with wine upon his flanks and reins j and, if that has no
good effedt, they put a very frnall fuppofitory, made of boiled honey
and fait, into the hole by which the urine paffes } or they put a living
fly, or a grain of frankincenfe, or a fuppofitory of bitumen, into his
. P p 2 naturals.

292 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

naturals. They apply the fame remedies, if the urine has fcaldtd his

running down in abundance, and flaccid ears, and a neck
over-burdened with the weight of his head, and hanging down to the
ground, are indications of a pain in his head : then they cut and open
the vein which is under his eye, and foment his mouth with warm
water, and keep him from meat the firft day. But the next day they
give him failing a potion of lukewarm water, and green grafs j alfo
they fpread old hay or foft flraw under him, and give him water again
in the twilight, and a little barley with two pounds and an half of
vetches, that with a very fmall portion of food he may be brought to
his ordinary allowance, and to perform his ufual taik.

If an horfe has a pain in his jaw-bones, you mild foment them with
warm vinegar, and rub them all over with hogs-greafe ; and you mud
apply the fame medicine to them when they are fwelled. If he has
hurt his (boulders, or if the blood be fallen down into his legs, let the
veins be opened almoil in the middle of both his legs, and let his
fhoulders be anointed with the blood that flows out of them, after you
have mixed fine powder of frankincenfe with it ; and you muft apply
the horfe’s own dung to his flowing veins, and bind . them up with
bandages, that they may not be emptied more than they ought to be.
Alfo, the day after, let him be blooded in the fame veins, and treated
after the fame manner j and let him be kept from barley, and a little
hay given him. Then the day following, and always till the fixth
day, let about three cyathu , or cupfuls, of the juice of leeks, mixed
with an hemina of oil, be poured down his throat thro’ an horn. After
the fixth day, let him be made to flep flowly j and, after he has walked,
it will be proper to put him down irrto a pond, fo that he may fwim.
Thus, by degrees, being cherifhed and aflifted with ftronger food, he
will be brought to his ordinary allowance and, ufual talk.

But if bile be troublefome to an horfe ; if his belly fwells, and he
does not break wind j they put their hand, anointed with oil, into his
fundament, and open the natural pafiages that are obilrudled, and take
out the dung : afterward they bruife wild origany (i), and loufewort (2)

with

(1) Cunila bubula is the fame with origanum filve/Ire , wild origany Pliny fays, that it
has a feed like penyroyal ," it is called Heracleion origanum, or panax Herac/ea. Father
Hardouin quotes a verfe out of Nicander, to prove, that cunila and origanum Heracleoticum
are the fame. Diofcorides alfo fays, lib. hi. 32. that fome call the origanum Heracleoticum,
cunila. Columella fays, lib. ix. 4. that the garden cunila is by the Rudies in Italy called
Jatureia , favory.

(2) Herba pedicularis , loufewort j fo called, from the effedt it has in deftroying lice.

By

genitals.

Tears

Chap. XXXI. Of HUSBANDRY. z93

with fait, and boil them, and mix them with honey, and fo make them
into fuppofitories, and adminifter them to him ; thefe will move his
belly, and bring away all the bile. Some pour a quarter of a pound
of bruifed myrrh, with an hemina of wine, down his throat, and anoint
his fundament with liquid pitch. Some give him a clyfter of fea-water >
others of frefh brine. Worms alfo, like earth-worms, ufe to hurt their
inteftines, of which the figns are, if the horfes tumble frequently
with pain ; if they move their head to their belly j if they frequently
tofs their tails. A prefent remedy is as we have already directed, to
thruft in your hand, and pull out the dung, and then to give them a
clyfter of fea-water, or very ftrong brine ; and afterward to pour down
their throat the root of the caper-bufh bruifed, with a fextarius of
vinegar : for by this means the forefaid animals are deftroyed.

CHAP. XXXI.

Of Remedies for a Cough .

BUT litter muft be fpread very deep under all feeble cattle what-
foever, that they may lie the fofter. A frefh cough is quickly
cured with lentils beaten in a mortar, and feparated from their hufks,
and ground very fmall } which things being thus done, they mix a
fextarius of warm water with the fame quantity of lentils, and pour
them down their throat : they give the like medicine for three days,
and the lick cattle is comforted and reftored with green herbs, and the
tops of trees. But an old cough is difcufted with three cyathi of the
juice of leeks with a pint of oil poured into their chops, and by giving
them the fame food as we directed before.

You muft rub ring- worms, tetters, and whatever part the feab feizes
upon, with vinegar and alum ; and, if thefe continue, they are fome-
times anointed with nitre and fciftile alum in equal quantity,, mixed
throughly with vinegar. Then rub pimples, blifters, or riiings on the
fitin with the currycomb, in the fcorching heat of the fun, till fuch
time as the blood be forced out of them : then they mix an equal

By Pliny it is reckoned to be the ft aphis agria of Dio fcor ides. It has leaves like thole of the
wild vine, and a flower like that of woad ; ftraight, foft, and black fhoots, and green
little hulls or pods like thofe of chicbes; and in them a triangular rough kernel, of a black-
yellowifh colour, white within, and fharp to the tafte. See Matthiol. in Diofcor. p. 850.

quantity

294 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI;

quantity of the roots of Quick-grafs { i), fulphur, liquid pitch, and
alum i and with this medicine the forefaid ailments are cured.

CHAP. XXXII.

Of Remedies for Hurts by Interfering , and for the Scab .

WHEN the fkin is rubbed off, and a wound made by interfer¬
ing (i), they wafh it twice a day with warm water, and, pre-
fently after, they rub it with fait bruifed and boiled with greafe, till
the ilrength of the corrupted matter drops out of it. The fcab is mor¬
tal to this four-footed beaft, unlefs a fpeedy remedy be applied to it.
If it be but flight and inconfiderable, when it firft: begins, they anoint
it in the heat of the fun, either with the rofin or pitch of the cedar-
tree (2), or with the oil of maftich (3 ), or with nettle-feed and oil bruifed
together, or with whale-oil, or with that which falted tunny throws
out in the difhes it is ferved up in. Neverthelefs the fat of a fea-calf
contributes moil of any thing to cure this ailment. But, if it is already
become inveterate, more violent remedies are neceflary j 'for which
reafon they boil bitumen, and fulphur, and white hellebore, mixt to¬
gether in equal quantities, in liquid pitch, and ftale hogs-lard, or axle-

(1) Agrefis herba. If this be the true reading, it is impoflible to divine what kind of
herb the author means : perhaps it may be, as fome conjedture, a kind of grafs called *
agroftis , which they fay is a kind of herb with many knots and joints, from each of which
it puts forth ftalks upward, and roots downward ; and the faid ftalks are the feminaries of:
others ; and fo it proceeds, till it over fpreads every place, which cannot be prevented but.
by pulling it up intirely by the roots. Homer mentions it, and calls it Hypuriv paKinS'ia.,
Some call it quick-grafs, or dogs-grafs.

( 1 ) Intertrigo , interfering , from inter and tero. It is rubbing or knocking one heel,
againft another; and here it Signifies the hurt or fore made by interfering.

(a) Cedria is the rofin i(Iutng out of the great cedar-tree. Pliny indeed fays, that cedria
is the pitch of the great cedar called cedr elate. But Diofcorides fays, that the cedar is a great
tree, from which that, which they call cedria , is gathered • by which, no doubt, he means,
the rofin or gum. Some authors call it gutnmi ; others lacryma or unguentvm , which is
different from the pitch, which is extracted by fire, which Pliny-, in his nat hifl. lib. xvi.
c. ix. fays, is made by cutting of wood, laying it in heaps, and furrounding it with fur¬
naces; and that the liquor, which flows firft, and is the moft liquid, is called cedrium
This fome call virgin pitch, being the pureft and the beft, the. other which follows being
of a grofler quality.

(3) Lentifcioleo. Lentifcus is the tree, and the rofin of it is called mafliche. Diofcorides
fays, that the beft is in the lfland of Chios , from which they extrad an oil, as alfo from the
wood of the tree. Pliny, in feveral places, mentions oleum e lentifco. Some fay the tree has
its name from its pliablenefs and toughnefs.

I

tree-

Chap. XXXIII. Of HUSBANDRY.’ 295

tree-greafe (4), and cure them with that compofition ; but they firfl:
fcrape off the fcab with a knife, and waflv it throughly with urine.
Sometimes alfo it has been of great benefit to open to the quick, and
cut away the fcab with a penknife, and fo to cure the wounds that'afe
thus made with liquid pitch and oil, which throughly cleanfe and fill
up the wounds equally ; and, when they are filled up, that they may
clofe and form a fear the more quickly, foot, from a caldron or kettle,
rubbed upon the ulcer, will be of very great benefit.

C H A P. XXXIII.

Of Remedies agamjl Flies , and for Pains in the Eyes.

WE fhall alfo remove flies, which infeff their wounds, with pitch
and oil, or any other ointment, mixt together, and poured
upon them. As for other things, they are cured very well with the
ineal of bitter vetches. Cicatrices ( 1 ) or fpecks of the eye are diminifhed,
when they are rubbed with fafting-fpittle and fait, or with the fhell of
the cuttle-fifh bruifed with foffile fait, or with the feed of the wild
parfnip bruifed in a mortar, and fqueezed through a linen cloth upon
the eyes. And all pains of the eyes are quickly eafed, by anointing
them with the juice of a plantane, with honey made without fmoke,
or, if this cannot be had, certainly with thyme-honey. Sometimes
alfo a flowing of blood through their noftrils has brought them into
danger; and this is flopped by pouring the juice of green coriander into
their noftrils. ■

(4) Axunija-, hogs-lard, or axletree-greafe. Both Pliny and our author highly commend
hogs-lard for fevcral ufes and eyres? especially that of a boar, which they ufe for anoint¬
ing axletrees, from which i: has its name, <7 uafi ab ungendo axes. Probably they intended
that which had been ufed for fome time for that purpole, and then to be taken off, and
applied as they directed; for the particles of the iron, by frequent attrition, mixing with
the greafe, and*heated to a certain degree, may be of great efficacy in many caies. See
Piin. nat. hijl. lib. xxviii. c. 9

(1) Cicatrices ocutorum. The Greeks call them the Latins , nubecula, little

clouds. Some define them a fuperficial exulceration of the black of the eye, occafioned
by the diffillation of an humour into it. Some diffinguifh the albugines and cicatrices thus,
that thefe are upon the furface, and are called aActi and thofe are called fi.ivKuy.a.TXy

and are the cicatrices lengius progrefla.

CHAP,

2g6

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VI.

CHAP. XXXIV.

Of Remedies for naufeating of their Food , and a peftilential

falling away of their Flefh .

SOMETIMES alfo the cattle languifhes with a loathing of their
food. A kind of feed, which they call git (i), is a remedy for
this, of which they put two cyathi or cupfuls bruifed to three cyathi
of oil, and a fextarius of wine, and fo pour it into their chops. A
naufeating is alfo removed, if you give them frequently to drink the
head of a garlick bruifed with an hemina of wine. It is better to open
an impoftumation with a red-hot lamina , than with a cold iron-inftru-
ment ; and, when it is fqeezed out, it is afterwards cured with lina-
ments. There is alfo that peftilential pining ftcknefs, when, in a few
days, mares are feized with a fudden leannefs, and then with death.
When this happens, it is of fome benefit to them to pour into each of
them, through their noftrils, four fextarii of falt-fifti-pickle, or mac-
krel-brine (2), if they be of a lefler fize; for, if they be of a larger
fize, you may even pour a congius of it into each of them. This brings
out all the rheum through their noftrils, and throughly purges the
cattle.

CHAP. XXXV.

Of Madnefs incident to Mares.

THERE is a madnefs which feizes mares, which is rare indeed, but
very well known, that, when they have feen their own image
in the water, they are taken with a filly vain love of it ; and thereby

forgetting

(t) Gitb or git. The Greeks call it melanthion Or melanfpermon , from the blacknefs of
ir$ feed. It is commonly called nigella , fennel-flower, or devil-in-a-bufh.

(2) Garum , a certain fait liquor or fauce made of afifli, which the Greeks called gar on.
There is no certain account given of this fifh ; therefore we may fay it is now unknown.
The fame fort of liquor was afterwards made of many different fifhes, which ftill retained
the antient name garum. We have this account of the way of making it : they threw the
inteftlnes of fifhes into a veffel, and falted them, and>then fet them out in the fun to mace¬
rate, frequently turning them, till they had formed a certain quantity of liquor, the fineft
of which they drained off, and called it garum. Of the remainder or refufe of all this fluff

they

Chap. XXXVI. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 297

forgetting their food, they pine away, and perifh with defire. The
figns of this madnefs are, when they run up-and-down their paftures,
as if they were put to the fpur, and from time to time looking round
them, they feem as if they were feeking for, and wanted fomething.
This phrenfy of theirs is removed, if you iead them to the water j then,
beholding at length their own uglinefs, they abolifh and lofe the remem¬
brance of their former image. What has been faid concerning mares
in general may fuffice. The following directions in particular mud be
given to thofe, who make it their bufinefs to breed and bring up herds
of mules.

CHAP. XXXVI.

Of Mules.

IN educating the mule-kind, the firft and principal thing to be done
is, carefully to inquire after, and find out, a male and female parent
of the future offspring, of which, if either the one or the other be
unfit for the purpofe, even that which is formed of the two decays,
and comes to nought. It is proper to chufe a mare of any age under
ten, as long as fhe is of the largeft and the moft beautiful fhape, with
ftrong members, and exceeding patient of labour, that fhe may eafily
receive and bear the full time the plant of a ftrange and different kind,
that is ingrafted into her, and is difcordant to her womb j and may
communicate to her offspring not only the good qualities of her body,
but alfo thofe of her natural difpofition and temper ; for not only the
feeds, which are thrown into the genital parts, are animated with diffi¬
culty, but alfo, after they are brought to conception, they are longer
in growing ripe for the birth, and are fcarcely brought forth in the thir¬
teenth month, after the full year is part j and there is more of the pater¬
nal dulnefs and fluggifhnefs, than of the maternal vigour, inherent in
the offspring.

Neverthelefs, as mares are found with lefs care for the forefaid ufes,
fo there is greater trouble in chufing a male, becaufe oft-times the ex-

they made another coarfer fauce, which they called alex. In Pliny s time, the moft efteemed
of any was that made of Jiombri , which, i'ome fay, is a fort of mackrel, which they brought
from Spain, and from an iflmd near Carthage , which, from that fifh, they called fcombra-
riaj fo that this exquifite liquor, as he fays, lib. xxxi. c. 8. was made of the guts of fifh,
and other things, which were proper to be thrown away, macerated in fait j and that it was
the juice that iilued out of them when they were beginning to putrify.

Qjq periment

298 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

periment fruftrates the expectation, and does not fucceed according to
the opinion of him that approved him. Many ftallions, of a wonder-
ous beautiful outward appearance (1), do generate a low mean race,
either as to their form or fex for, whether they procreate females of
a fmall body, or more males alfo than females of a beautiful body, they
diminifh the income of the matter of the family : but fome, of a con¬
temptible afpeCt, are productive and full of moft precious feeds. Some¬
times there are fome of them, which convey their excellent and noble
qualities to their offspring : but, being dull and flow to pleafure, are
very rarely provoked to venery. To a male of this temper the Keep-
pers ought to bring near, by degrees, a female of the fame kind, becaufe
nature has made animals, that are alike, more familiar with their like j
for fo it is brought about, that, by throwing the female in his way,
when the male alfo is foothed into good humour by leaping upon her,
being, as it were, fet on fire, and blinded with luft, after they have
withdrawn her, which he had a liking to, and fought after, he may
be put upon the mare, which he had an averfion to.

CHAP. XXXVII.

Of refraining the Cruelty of a Stallion , mad upon gratifying

his Luft.

THERE is alfo another kind of ftallion, who runs furioufly to the
gratification of his luft, which, if he is not artfully retrained,
proves deftruCtive to the ftud ; for oft-times, having broken his bonds,
lie difquiets thofe that are with young ; and, when he is admitted, he
faftens his teeth in the necks and backs of the females. To prevent his
doing of this, they bind him a little while to the mill, and moderate
the cruelty of his love with labour, and fo admit him to venery when
he is become more modeft. Neverthelefs a ftallion alfo, that is of more
clemency in his libidinous gratifications, is not to be admitted upon other
terms, becaufe it is of much importance, that the naturally droufy and
dull difpofition of this beaft be put in motion and roufed by moderate
exercife ; and that the male, when he is made more lively and brifk

(1) Multi adtnijjarii Jpecie terns mirabilijjimam. This fentence Teems to be imperfeCt ;
and, in order to make it intelligible, viirabilijfimam muft be changed into mtrabi'es pejjimam ,
cr, as Gejnerus corrects it, mirabilet imam , which will make it very confiftent.

2

than

Chap. XXXVII. Of HUSBANDRY. 299

than ufual, be joined to the female, that fo the feeds themfelves may,
by a certain fecret efficacy, be formed and faffiioned of more lively and
active principles.

But a mule is generated not only of a mare and an he-afs, but all'o
of a ffie-afs and an horfe, and of a wild he-afs and a mare. But fome
authors not to be concealed, as Marcus Varro , and, before him, Dio-
nyjius and Magoy have related, that, in fome countries in Africa , the
breed of mules is fo far from being looked upon as prodigies, that their
bringing forth of young is as familiar to the inhabitants, as that of mares
is to us. Neverthelefs there is none of this kind of cattle that is more
excellent and valuable, either with refpedt to their difpofition an dtem-
per, or the form of their body, than that which is begotten by an he-
afs, altho’ that which is begotten by a wild he-afs may, in fome mea-
fure, be compared to this, except that it always carries along writh it the
lean and ill-favoured appearance and mein of its lire, and cannot be
tamed and broken, and will not yield and fubmit to labour, as is the
temper of every bead: that is wild. Therefore a ftallion of this fort is
more profitable in his nephews than in his fons ; for, when one that is
fprung of a fhe-afs and a wild he-afs is admitted to a mare, whatever
proceeds from him, its wildnefs and fiercenefs gradually abating, retains
the form and modedy of its fire, and the ftrength and fwiftnefs of its
grandfire.

Such as are conceived and procreated of an horfe and a fhe-afs, altho’
they take their name from their fire, being called hinni (i), are, in all
things, more like their dams j therefore it is mod: advantageous to dedi-
nate an he-afs for procreating the mule-kind, the breed of which (as
I faid) is found by trial to be of a more goodly, fightly and beautiful
appearance. Neverthelefs he ought not otherwife to be approved of
from his afpedt, but by his being of a very large body, with a drong
neck, robuft and broad ribs, a mufculous and vail ched, brawny thighs,
compadt legs, of a black or fpotted colour ; for the moufe-colour, as it
is very common in an he-afs, is not very fuitable alfo in a mule. Nei¬
ther let the outward appearance of the four-footed bead in general de¬
ceive us, if we behold him fuch as we approve ; for in the fame man¬
ner as the fpots, which are in the tongues and palates of rams, are found,
for the mod part, in the fleeces of lambs, fo, if the he-afs carries hairs
of a different colour in his eye-lids or ears, he frequently procreates an
offspring of divers colours alfo; which colour itfelf, tho’ it has been

(1) Hinni, fo called from their neighing fomewhat like a horfe, retaining fomething of
their fire.

Qj} z mod

300 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VI.

moft diligently examined and fearched for in a ftallion, neverthelefs oft-
times deceives the owner: for fometimes alfo, without the forefaid
figns, he procreates mules very unlike to himfelf, which, I think, does
not happen otherwife, but that the colour of the grandlire, by being
mixt with the primordial feed, is communicated and reftored to his
grandfons.

Therefore fuch a foal of an afs, as I have defcribed, muft, a3 foon
as he is foaled, be prefently taken from his mother, and put under a
mare, without her having any knowledge of him. She is very eafily
deceived in the dark ; for her own foal being taken away from her, the
forefaid one is nourifhed by her in a dark place, as if fhe had foaled it
herfelf. Then, when the mare has been accuftomed to him for ten
days, fhe will always afterwards give him her dugs when he feeks for
them. The ftallion, being thus foftered, learns, by degrees, to love
mares. Sometimes alfo, tho’ he be brought up with his mother’s milk,
yet, having been familiarly converfant with mares from his younger
days, he may have a liking to them, and feek to be in their company;
and be familiar with them. But one under three years old muft not be
admitted to be a ftallion ; and, if even this be allowed, it will be proper
to be done in the fpring, when he muft be ftrengthened both with green
cut-grafs, and a large allowance of barley; and fometimes alfo you muft
give him a drench. Neverthelefs, he muft not be put to a young fe¬
male ; for unlefs fhe has known a male before, the drives away the
ftallion with her kicking, when he leaps upon her ; and when he is thus
violently driven away, and feverely ufed, it makes him an enemy to
all other mares alfo. To prevent this, they put an ignoble and vulgar
little he-afs to the female, to folicit her compliance. Neverthelefs,
they do not fuffer him to cover her, but, if the mare is brought to be
paftive, they prefently drive away that of a more ignoble breed, and
put her to a male of greater value, and of a more noble extraction.

There is a place built on purpofe fort hefe ufes, (peafants call it a
machine) which has two walls built into a gently riling ground, and
at fo fmall diftance the one from the other, that the female may not
ltruggle, nor turn herfelf away from the ftallion when he leaps upon
her. There is accefs into it at both ends, but in the lower end it is
fecured and fhut up with crofs-bars ; to which the mare being bound
with a halter, is placed in the lower part of the declivity, that fobend¬
ing downward (lie may both receive the feed of the ftallion, that covers
her the better, and afford to the leffer four-footed beaft, an eafy afcent
to her back from the higher part. After fhe has brought forth that
which Ihe has conceived by the he-afs, the following year, fine nurfes

and

Chap. XXXVIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 301

and brings up her young one without being with foal again : for that
is better than what fome do, who, notwithftanding fhe has but- lately
foaled, yet fill her belly again by admitting an horfe to her. When
the fhe-mule is one year old, it is proper to drive her from her dam j
and, after fhe is removed, to pafture her upon the mountains, or in
wild places, that {he may harden her hoofs, and be afterwards fit for
long journeys ; for the he-mule is fitter for the pack-faddle. She in¬
deed is nimbler ; but both fexes are very proper, both for travelling,
and alfo for tilling the ground ; unlefs the price of the quadruped be
too burdenfome an expence to the Hufbandman, or the field, with its
weighty glebe, require the ftrength of oxen.

CHAP. XXXVIII.

Of Medicines for curing Mules.

I Have already, in fpeaking of the other kinds, taught you, for the
moft part, the medicines proper for this cattle : nevertheiefs, I
fhall not omit certain difeafes peculiar to mules, the remedies of which
I have here fubjoined. They give raw cole wort or cabbage to a mule
that has a fever. They take away fome blood from one that is purfy,
and has a difficulty in breathing, and mix about an hemina of the juice
of horehound, with a fextarius of wine and oil, and half an ounce of
frankincenfe, and pour them into her. They apply barley-meal to
one that is affedted with the fpavin j and afterwards, when they have
opened the fuppuration with a lancet, they cure it with linaments : or
they pour into her, thro’ the left noftril, a J'extarius of the beftgarum, .
or falt-mackrel-brine, with a pound of oil ; and with this medicine
they mix the liquor of three or four eggs, after they have feparated the
yolks from it. They fometimes are wont to cut their thighs, and to
burn them with an hot iron. They let out the blood that falls down
into their feet, in the fame manner as they do in horfes ; or if they have
an herb, which peafants call white hellebore , they give it them for fod¬
der. There is henbane, the feed of which, bruifed, and given with wine,
cures the forefaid difeafe.

Leannefs and a languor are removed by giving them frequently a po¬
tion, into which they put half an ounce of bruifed fulphur, and a raw
egg, and a dram weight of bruifed myrrh. They mix thefe three things
with wine, and fo pour them down their throat. But thefe felf-fame

things

302 L. J. M. COLUMELLA, ftPr. Book VI.

things do equally cure a cough, and a pain of the belly. There is no¬
thing of fo great efficacy for leannefs, as medic. That herb, when it
is green, and even when it is dry, prefently fattens labouring beafts :
but it muft be given moderately, left the cattle be fuffocated with too
much blood.

They put greafe into a mule’s chops, when ffie is tired and exceed¬
ing hot, and pour pure wine into her mouth. As to what is further
neceffary for mules, we will put in practice the directions we delivered
in the former parts of this book, which contain every thing. relating to
the care and management of oxen, and of mares.

L. JUNIUS

t 3°3 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK SEVENTH.

AS we are now, Publius Silvinus , going to fpeak of lefTer cattle,
we (hall begin with this lefTer, vulgar, little Arcadian he-
afs, of fmall value, of which moft authors of Hufbandry
think that principal account ought to be made, and the
greatefl regard had to him, both in buying and managing of beafts
deftined for labour : and not without reafon ; for he may be kept
even in that farm which has no pafture, being content with a very
fmall allowance of fodder, and of any fort whatsoever : for they nou-
rifh him either with leaves, or thorn-bufhes, or thirties, or willow-
rods, or with a bundle of vine-fprays thrown before him ; but he even
grows fat with ftraw and chaff, with which almoft all countries abound.
Alfo he bears up moft valiantly under the negledt of an imprudent
keeper : he can endure blows, and ftripes, and penury, with the greateft
patience : for which reafons, he fails and decays more flowly than any
other fort of cattle whatfoever. For, being exceeding patient of labour
and hunger, he is rarely affedted with difeafes. The very many and
neceflary fervices of this animal, beyond what comes to his fhare, con¬
sidering his fize, do more than compenfate the little trouble and charges
in keeping him, forafmuch as with light ploughs he breaks up eafy
ground, fuch as that in Bcetica and all Libya is, and draws fuch car¬
riages as are not of too great weight. Oft-times alfo, as the moft cele¬
brated poet fays (i),

■■ ■ — ‘ The driver of the flow dull afs,

* Returning from the city, loads his ribs

(i) Virg. gcorg. lib. i. 273.

With

304 L. J. M. C 0 L U M E L L A Book VII.

* With cheap and paltry apples, or brings back
‘ His dented ftone, or mafs of coal-black pitch. ’

Now, indeed, working in mills, and grinding of corn, is almoft
the ufual and ordinary labour of this cattle : wherefore every manor
whatfoever requires this little afs, as what is exceeding neceffary, which,
as I faid, can very conveniently carry to town, or bring back again,
either upon his back, or with his neck, moft part of things neceffary
for ufe. But which fpecies of them is moft approved, or what is the
molt approved way of managing them, has been abundantly declared
in the preceding book, when directions were given concerning the afs
of great price, and noble extraction.

j

CHAP. II.

Of Buying and Managing of Sheep.

AFTER the greater quadrupeds, fheep-cattle are of fecond ac¬
count, which may be of firit account, if you have regard to the
greatnefs of the profit redounding from them. For this fort of cattle
chiefly protects us againft the violence of the cold, and furnifhes comely
and magnificent coverings for our bodies. Moreover, it not only fatiates
the country people with abundance of milk and cheefe, but alfo gar-
nifhes the tables of the elegant with agreeable and numerous difhes.
To fome nations, indeed, which are intirely deftitute of corn, it fur¬
nifhes their whole fuftenance : hence it is, that very many of the No-
mades(i) and Getce (2) are called GalaBopotce (milk-drinkers). There¬
fore this cattle, though it be exceeding delicate, as Celfus fays very
prudently, enjoys a very fafe ftate of health, and is not at all afflicted
with peflilential ficknefs. Neverthelefs, it mutt be chofen according
to the nature of the place ; which Virgil directs to be obferved, not
only with refped to this cattle, but alfo in all rural difcipline whatfo¬
ever, when he fays (3),

1 Nor can all forts of lands all things produce. 5

(1) Nomades were fuch people in general, as fubfifted by feeding of cattle, and had no
certain habitation, but went where-ever they could find pafture for their cattle, as the wild
Tartars , &c.

(2) Get <e, a people in 'Dacia , upon the confines of Scythia ; fome think they were the
Moldavians. Pliny fays, that thefe Get at were by the Romans called Daci.

(3) yiro Seor&‘ ii. 89.

i A fat

Chap. II. O/HUSBANDRY, 3o5

A fat and champagne country fuftains tall fheep j a lean and hilly,
thofe that are fquare and well-let ; a woody and mountainous, fuch as
are fmall. Covered cattle find very convenient pafture in meadows
and level fallow lands.

And this direction is not only of great importance, with refpetft to
the feveral kinds of Iheep, but alfo to their colours. Our people for¬
merly reckoned, that the Milefian (4), Calabrian , and Apulian (5)
Iheep, were of an excellent kind j and that the Tarentinian (6) were
the belt of them. Now thofe of Gaul are efteemed more valuable ;
and of thefe, the Altmian (7) are preferred to all the reft. Alfo thole
which have their folds upon the lean fields about Parma and Modena.
The white colour, as it is the beft, fo alfo it is the moft profitable ; be-
caufe that of it very many other colours are made ; but this is not
made of any other. The black and brown dark colours, which Pol -
lentia (8) in Italy , and Corduba (9) in Bcetica, furnilh us with, are
of their own nature commendable for their price. Nor does Afia pro¬
duce lefs plenty of thofe of a bright-red colour, which they call Ery-
threan (10).

But experience has taught to produce and exprefs other varieties alfo
in this kind of cattle ; for, at a certain time, when fome wild and fierce
rams of a wonderful colour, as other beafts, were brought from the
neighbouring parts of Ajrica , to the municipal city of Cadiz , by thofe'
who entertained the people with public games and fhews, M. Colu¬
mella my uncle, a man of a quick difcerning genius, and a famous
Hulbandman, having bought fome of them, carried them to his own
lands, and when they were tamed, admitted them to couple with co¬
vered fheep. Thefe, at firft, brought forth rough briftly lambs, but
of the colour of their fire ; and afterwards they themfelves, being put
upon Tarentinian fheep, generated rams of a finer fieece. Moreover,
whatever was afterwards conceived by them, refembled the colour of
the fire and grandfire, but the delicacy and foftnefs of the dam. In
this manner Columella faid that any colour or outward appearance

(4) Milejii were a people in Caria , or louia, in the lefTer Afia.

(5) Calabria and Apulia , both Provinces in the Kingdom of Naples • the laid is mighty
fruilul in cattle.

(6) Tarentinian Jheep were fuch as were bred in the territory of Taranto , in the King-
dom of Naples.

(7) Altinum , now called Altino , in the Venetian territory, once a famous city at the
mouth of the river S/7e, which falls into the gulf of Venice.

(8; Pollentia , once a famous town, but now ruinous, upon the River Tavaro , in that
part of Italy formerly called Lizuria. The country about it was famous for black fheep.

(9) Corduba, now called Cordova , a very famous city upon the river Bcetis in Spain.

(loj Erythrean wool, fo called from its reddifh colour, epvSfir, red.

R r what-

;o6 L. J. M. COLUME LL A Book VII.

whatfoever, that was in beads, did return with a mitigation of their
fiercenefs and wildnefs, through the feveral degrees of their defcendants.
I fhall return to what I propofed.

Now there are two kinds of fheep-cattle ; the foft and delicate, and
the rough and briftly. But, in buying both the one and the other,
there are feveral things that are common to both. Never theljefs, there
are fome things that are peculiar to the noble and excellent kind, which
it may be proper fhould be obferved. In buying flocks, the following
are the things, for the moft part, which ought to be obferved in
common. If the whitenefs of the wool pleafes you mod, you (hall
always chufe the whited males : for, of a white male, there is often
produced a dark tawny offspring ; but that which is white is never
generated by one that is red or black.

CHAP. III.

Of chuftng Rams .

THerefore the way to judge and approve of a ram, is not only
that of obferving if he is cioathed with a white fleece, but alfo,
if his palate and tongue are of the fame colour with his wool : for,
when thefe parts of his body are black or fpotted, there arifes a black
or fpeckled offspring. And this, among other things, the fame poet
I mentioned above, has excellently pointed out in fuch numbers as
thefe (i) :

* Reject him, tho’ the ram himfelf be white,

* Under whofe oufy palate lies conceal’d
‘ A black or fpotted tongue ; for with black fpots
* He’ll flain the fleeces of his future race. ’

One and the fame reafon holds with refpedl both to Erythrean and
black rams, of which (as I have already faid) no part ought to be of
a different colour from the wool, and much lefs their whole Akin be
chequered with fpots : therefore we mull never buy fheep, except they
have their wool upon them, that fo the unity of their colour may the
better appear j which unlefs it be particularly remarkable in rams,
the paternal fpots, for the mofl part, are inherent in their offspring.

(i) Virg. Georg. lib. iii. 387.

But

Chap. III. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 307

Bat the make of his body is moft approved, when it is high and
tall, with an hanging-down and woolly belly, an exceeding long tail,
and of a thick fleece, with a broad forehead, large tefticles, twilled
horns ; not becaufe this laft is more ufeful, (for a ram without horns is
better) but becaufe horns that are twilled and bended inwards are not
at all fo hurtful, as thofe that are fet upright and expanded. Never-
thelels, in fome countries, where the climate is wet and windy, we
would with for he-goats and rams even with the very largell horns ;
becaufe, when they are high and extended, they defend the greatell
part of the head from the florm. Therefore, if for the moll part the
winter is violently cold, we will choofe this kind ; but, if it be milder,
we lhall approve of a male that has no horns j becaufe there is this
inconveniency in one that is horned, that when he perceives himfelf
armed, as it were, with a certain natural weapon upon his head, he
frequently rufhes out to battle, and becomes more faucy and frolick-
fome with the females : for he perfecutes his rival moll violently,
tho’ he alone is not fuflicient for ferving the whole flock ; nor will he
fuffer the flock to be ferved in due time by any other, except when he
is fatigued with lull. But one that has no horns, when he knows him¬
felf to be as it were difarmed, is neither fo ready to quarrel, and is
more gentle in his amours. Therefore fhepherds check the cruelty of
a mifchievous he-goat or ram, by this cunning contrivance ; they flick
a flrong board of one foot meafure full of pricks, and bind it to his
horns with the points towards his forehead. This thing rellrains one
that is fierce from quarrelling, when he is pricked, and wounds him¬
felf with his own blow. But Epicharmus the Syracufum , who wrote
very carefully of the art of curing cattle, and of the medicines that are
proper for them, affirms that a fighting quarrelfome ram is tamed
by having his horns bored with a gemlet, hard by his ears, where they
are fir ft crookened in the bending. The bell age of this quadruped for
procreating, is when he is three years old : nor yet is he unfit for it
till he be eight years.

The female ought to be joined to an hufband after flue is two years
old, and lhe is reckoned to be young and in her prime, when fhe is five
years old : after her feventh year fhe begins to decline. Therefore, as I
laid, you fhall purchafe ffieep that are not fhorn : you fhall reject the
grey and fpeckled hair, becaufe it is of an uncertain colour : you fhall
refufe the barren one, that threatens you with her three-year- old
tooth : you fhall choofe her that is two years old, and of a huge body,
with a long neck, long wool, but not harfh and coarfe, with a woolly

Rr 2 and

3o8 L, J.M, COLUMELLA Book VII.

and large belly j for an ewe with a peeled, bare, and very fmall belly,
mu ft be avoided.

And thefe almoft are the things in common to be obferved in pur-
chafing fheep : alfo thofe following are to be obferved in keeping and
managing them, viz. that their folds be low, but rather extended in
length than in breadth, that they may be both warm in winter, and
the ftraightnefs of the place may not make them caft their young : and
they ought to be placed again ft the fouth ; for this cattle, tho’ of all
animals it is the beft cloathed, is neverthelefs moft impatient of cold,
and no lefs of the heat of fummer. Therefore, a clofe furrounded with
an high wall, ought to be placed before their porch, that they may
go out into it with fafety, and fummer in the cool ; and let care be
taken, that no moifture remain in it, and that their folds be always
ftrewed with very dry ferns or ftraw, that fo the ewes, that are with
young may lie the cleaner, and the fofter. Let their bafkets be exceed¬
ing clean (a), that their health, which is chiefly to be taken care of,
may not be impaired with any kind of moifture.

But large allowances of food muft be given to all forts of fheep : for
even a very fmall number, when fatiated with food, yields more to
their owner, than the greateft flock, if they be pinched with want. But
you muft endeavour to find for them fallow-grounds, that are not only
graffy, but which, for the moft part, are void of thorns j and let us
often make ufe of the authority of that divine poem (3) :

* If wool’s thy care, then firft from prickly woods,

‘ And briars, and thorns, and burs, thy tender flock

* Keep at a diftance.’ . - - -

For, as thp fame poet fays, this thing makes the fheep fcabby :

* When to their fkin, which in a wholfome ftream

* Has not been wafh’d when newly fhorn, the fweat

* Adheres ; and when, with prickly bri’rs and thorns^

‘ Their tender bodies wounded are and torn. ’

(2.) Quala mtndijjima. Some think, that the true reading is ilia , inftead of quala , refer¬
ring to fiabula , viz. that their folds be kept clean and dry, without any moifture to impair
their health: and indeedit is not eafy to conjecture, why the author fhould bring quala
into this place, unlefs by it he means fome clofe baskets, wherein they gave them fodder
in hard weather j but in common fodder- baskets no moifture could remain, that could be
hurtful to them.

(3) V‘r&- Georg, lib. iii. 384. 442.

Moreover,

Chap. III. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 30 9

Moreover, their wool is thereby daily diminifhed, which how much
the longer and thicker it grows upon the cattle, fo much the more
obnoxious is it to the brambles, which catch it as it were with fo many
hooks, and pull it from their fltins while they are feeding. The deli¬
cate flieep alfo lofe the covering wherewith they are provided, and
that is not repaired with a fmall expence.

Almoft all authors are agreed, that the fpring-time, when the feaft
of Pales (4) is celebrated, is the moft proper for admitting the ram, if
it be an ewe juft come to maturity ; but, if fhe has already had a lamb,
about the ninth of July is the proper time. Nevertheless, • it is not to
be doubted, the firft is more to be approved of j that as the vintage
follows the harveft, fo the yeaning-time may fucceed to the gathering
in of the fruit of the vine ; and the lamb, being fatiated with the fod¬
der of the whole autumn, may become ftrong before the melancholy
colds, and the fafting-days of winter approach : for a lamb, yeaned in
autumn, is better than one in the fpring, as CelJus fays very truly, be-
caufe it tends more to our advantage, that he grow ftrong before the
fummer folftice, than before that of winter : and of all animals he
alone fuffers no inconveniency, by being brought forth in the middie
of winter. And if our prefent occafion requires, that mold males fhould
be procreated, Arijlotle , a man exceedingly well acquainted with the
nature of things, diredts us to obferve and watch for the northern
breezes in dry weather, at the time when the rams are admitted ; that
we may feed the flock againft the wind, and that the cattle may take
the ram when they are looking towards it : but, if females are to be
generated, he diredts us to catch the fouthern breezes, that the rams
may leap upon the ewes in the fame manner. For that which we
taught in the preceding book, that the right, or even the left, tefticle
of the ram which ferves the flock, be tied up with a band, is too great
a labour in great flocks.

Then, after the yeaning-time is paft, when the fhepherd is preparing
to go to paftures of a far diftant quarter, let him referve almoft all the
young offspring for the paftures that are contiguous to the city ; for
the bailiff delivers the young lambs to the butcher, before they have
tafted any grafs, becaufe they are carried thence at a very fmall charge ;
and, after they are taken away, the advantage accruing from their mo¬
ther’s milk is not diminifhed. Neverthelefs, it is neceftary fometimes
to bring up lambs for a new breed, even.in the neighbourhood of the

(4) Parilia, or Palilia. Among the Romans-, Pales was the’goddefs of fhepherds, under
whole pro:e£tion they fuppofed theep were. Her fealt was celebrated the 1 8ch day of
sfpril, with great folemnity, as we fee in OviJii Fajli, Servius upon Virgil, and others.

city :

310 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

city : for cattle bred and brought up in our own country, is much
more profitable than that which is brought from another country.
Nor ought fuch an error ever to be committed, as to fuffer the whole
flock to wear out and decay with old age, and leave the owner intirely
deftitute, efpecially confidering, that it is the very firft bufmefs of a
good Shepherd to fubftitute as many or more heads, in the room of
thofe that are dead or difeafed j becaufe, oft-times, the feverity of the
colds, and the rigour of the winter, deceives the Shepherd, and kills
and deftroys thofe fheep, which he, in the time of autumn, thinking
they were ftill tolerable, had not drawn out of the flock. And fo
much the more, becaufe of thefe accidents, let the number be filled
up only with the ftrongeft and new progeny, which may not be much
affected with the winter. Whofoever will do this, ought confiantly to
obferve, not to commit the bringing up of her own offspring to any
ewe that is under four, nor to one that is above eight years old : for
neither the one nor the other age is proper for educating young ones ;
as alfo that which fprings out of old materials, for the moll part, brings
along with it the old age of its parent, blended with its conftitution ;
for it is either barren or weakly.

And they ought to watch the time the cattle begins to bring forth,
with no lefs care than a midwife ufes to do : for this animal does not
bring forth otherwife than our female fex does ; and inafmuch as it is
intirely ignorant, and deftitute of all reafon, fo much the more fre¬
quently it labours, and is in danger, in bringing forth. Wherefore an
Overfeer of cattle ought to be expert in that fort of phyfic which be¬
longs to a Farrier, that, if neceflity requires, he may either pull out
the conception intire, when it flicks croffways in the genitals, or bring
out the young one after he has divided it with an inftrument, without
deftroying the mother, which the Greeks call, IfxfipvdAKeiv. But the
lamb, after it is yeaned, ought to be fet upon its feet, and put to the
udder ; and its mouth ought to be opened and moiftened, by fqueezing
the milk out of the nipples into it, that it may learn to draw nourifh-
ment from its mother. But, before that be done, a little of that which
the Shepherds call Beejling-milk , muft be milked out ; for, unlefs this
be fqueezed out, it hurts the lamb, which ought to be fhut up with its
dam for two days after he is yeaned, that both fhe may cherifh her
own offspring, and it may learn by degrees to know its mother. Then
afterwards, as long as he does not frifk and play about, let him be kept
in a dark and warm fold. Afterwards, when he grows too frolick-
fome, he muft be fhut up with thofe of his own age, in an area in-
clofed with wattles, that he may not grow lean with his too much

flapping

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. jn

fkipping and leaping as it were : and care muft be taken, that the more
tender be feparated from the ftronger, becaufe the robuft vexes and tor¬
ments the weak, And it is fufficient to mix the lambs with the ewes
m the morning before the flock goes forth to the paftures ; and then in
the evening alfo, when they return with their bellies full.

And, when the lambs begin to be ftrong, they muft be fed within the
fold, with fhrub- trefoil, or medic; as alfo with bran ; or, if the price
of corn may permit it, with barley-meal, or with that of bitter vetches :
then, after they are grown up, their dams muft be brought to the mea¬
dows or fallow lands, that are contiguous to the manor-houfe ; and the
lambs be let out of their folds, that they may learn by degrees to feed
abroad. As we have already fpoken of that kind of food which is pro¬
per for them, we fhall take notice of thofe things which have been
omitted, and obferve, that the fweeteft herbs are thofe which grow
in corn-lands, whioh have been cut up with the plough ; next,, fuch
as grow in meadows which arc not oufy ; but fuch as grow in marfhes
and woods are not at all reckoned proper for them. Neverthelefs,.
there are no forts of fodder whatfoever, nor even paftures, fo pleafing;
and agreeable, which, with continual ufe, do not grow ftale, and lofe
their agreeablenefs, unlefs the Shepherd prevent the naufeating of the
cattle, by giving them fait, which being laid in wooden troughs, du¬
ring the fummer, to be as it were a feafoning for their fodder, the
fheep lick it up when they return from the pafture, and, by the tafte
of it, conceive a defire of drinking and feeding. But, on the other
hand, they relieve them from the fcarcity and want of fodder during
the winter, by throwing food before them in racks within the houfe :
and elm- or afh-leaves, or autumnal hay, which they call after-grafs,
laid up for them, are very convenient food for them ; for this fort of hay
is fofter, and upon that account fweeter, than that which is full grown,
and firft cut. Shrub- trefoil and common vetches are alfo excellent
food for them : neverthelefs, chaff or ftraw alfo, even of any fort of
puls, are necelfary when other things have failed : for barley by itfelf,
or the bean bruited with its pods, or the chichling, are more charge¬
able, than that they can be given to them at a fmail price in countries
contiguous to the city; but, if the lownefs of their price allows it, with¬
out doubt they are beft.

But as to the times of feeding them, and leading them to water, I<
do not differ in my opinion from what Maro has delivered (y)

i Soon as the fulgent Morning-ftar appears,

(5) Wr£- Georg, lib. iii. 324. & fez-

X

*■ And

312 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

c And while the morning’s new, while grafs is grey,

‘ And dew diddling from each tender herb

* Is fav’ry, and invites the flocks to eat j

1 Let us conduct them to cold fpacious fields ;

4 And, when the fourth hour of the day has rais’d

4 Their third, then thence to wells, or to deep pools,

let us lead them ; and, in the middle of the day, as the fame poet fays,
let us conduit them to a valley,

4 Where Jove' s huge oak, with years made hard and drong,

* Its mighty boughs ex tends ; or gloomy grove,

4 With thick-fet holms fecur’d from Phoebus' rays,

4 Its facred ffiade fpreads on th’ adjacent ground.

Then, after the heat is abated, let us drive them again to water, and
lead them out to the padures a fecond time,

* Till fun goes down, when the cold Ev’ning-dar

4 Allays the heat, and dew-didilling moon

4 Repairs the foreds. ’

But, about the time that the Dog-dar fird fliews itfelf, we mud take
particular notice of the fun, that before noon we drive our flock with
their heads to the wed, and that they advance toward that part, and
in the afternoon toward the ead : for it is of very great importance,
that their heads be not turned exadlly toward the fun when they are
feeding, which for the mod part is hurtful to animals when the forefaid
dar is rifing.

In winter and fpring let them be kept in their lheep-cotes during
the morning, till the fun removes the frods from the fields : for, in
thefe days, grafs with hoar-frod upon it gives the cattle a great heavi-
nefs and duffing in their heads, and brings a loofenefs upon them j
wherefore, in moid and cold times of the year alfo, they mud be
allowed to drink only once a day. Alfo let him who follows the flock
be vigilant and circumfpedl, and (which is given as an injunction to
all keepers of all four-footed beads whatfoever) let him govern and
rule over them with great clemency, and let this fame perfon be more
like a captain and leader, than a lord and mader ; and both when he
gathers his ffieep together, and houfes them, let him threaten them
with a loud fhout, and with his daff, but never throw any offenfive
4 weapon

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 313

weapon at them, nor return to any great didance from them ; neither
let him either lie down, nor. fit down : for, unlefs he is going for¬
ward, he ought to ftand ; becaufe, indeed, the duty of a Keeper requires,
that he be always as it were upon a high and lofty watch-tower, that
he may turn his eyes every way, and neither fuffer thofe that are flow
and great with young, while they loiter, nor thofe that are nimble,
and have already brought forth, while they run before, to be feparated
from the reft ; left either a thief, or a wild beaft, deceive the heedlefs
unattentive Shepherd. But thefe things relate in general almoft to all
lheep-cattle whatfoever. Now we fhall fpeak of fuch things as are
peculiar to the generous kind.

CHAP. IV.

- »

Of covered Sheep.

IT is fcarcely any advantage at all to have Greek cattle, which moll:

people call Tarentinian , in one’s poffeflion, except when the owner
is actually prefent himfelf ; confidering that they require both greater
care, and a greater allowance of food : for inafmuch as the wool¬
bearing kind in general is more tender and delicate than any other cattle
whatfoever, fo the Tarcntinian is the moft tender and delicate of them
all, which cannot bear with any manner of flothfulnefs, either of their
owner or keepers, and much lefs with their covetoufnefs j and it can
neither endure exceflive heat nor cold. They are feldom fed without
doors, but for the moft part in the houfe; and they are exceeding greedy
of food, of which if any part be withdrawn by the villainy of the Bailiff,
ruin and deftrudtion follow the flock. During winter, they are fed very
well at their cribs with three Jextarii of barley, or of beans bruifed with
their own hulks, or with four Jextarii of chichlings each head, but fo
as jo give them likewife dried leaves, or dry or green medic, or fhrub-
trefoil ; as alfo feven pound weight of fecond-crop-hay, or chaff of
pulfe in abundance.

There is the leaft advantage to be had by felling the lambs of this
kind of cattle, nor can any be made by their milk ; for fuch of them
as ought to be removed from their dams, are killed for the moft part a
very few days after they are yeaned, before they come to maturity ;
and their mothers, being bereaved of their own young ones, give fuck
to the offspring of a ftranger : for each lamb is put to be fuckled and
brought up by two nurfes, nor is it expedient, that any thing be with-

S f drawn

}i4 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

drawn from fuch as are put to be fuckled and brought up, that fo the
lamb, being fuller fed, and glutted with milk, may quickly grow ftrong ;
and the ewe which brought it forth, being affociated with a nurfe, may
labour lefs in the education of her own offspring. For which reafon
you muft be very careful to obferve, that the lambs be put daily both
to the dugs of their own dams, and alio to thofe of others, that are
Grangers to them, and do not love them.

But, in flocks of this kind, you muft nourifh and bring up more
males, than in thofe which have coarfe hairy wool : for the males, be¬
ing caftrated before they can couple with the females, are killed when
they are two years old complete ; and their fkins are delivered to the
merchants, at a greater price than other fleeces, becaufe of the exqui-
fite beauty of the wool. But we muft remember to feed our Greek
fheep in free open fields, void of all manner of bufhes, fprigs, or
briars, left, as I faid above, both their wool and their covering be
pulled off them j nor yet do they require lefs diligence and care with¬
out doors, becaufe they feldom go forth to the paftures, but greater
care and attendance at home j for they muft be frequently uncovered,
reffefhed, and cooled : their wool muft be frequently opened and parted,
and moiftened with oil and wine : fometimes alfo they muft be wafhed
all over with water, if the mildnefs and brightnefs of the day permit
it ; and it is enough, if that be done three times a year. But the fheep-
cotes muft be often fwept and cleanfed, and all the moifture of their
urine conveyed away, which is very conveniently dried up by boring
holes in the boards wherewith the floors of the fheep-houfes are laid, that
the flock may lie upon them : and let their houfes be freed not only
from mire, and dirt, and dung, but from deftrudtive ferpents alfo ;
and, that this may be done, (i)

4 Strong-fcented cedar likewife learn to burn
* Within thy folds ; and, with the burning fmell
4 Of Galbanum , the hurtful fnakes purfue,

4 And drive them thence j for oft, below the cribs
4 Unmov’d, a deadly viper lurks unfeen,

4 Which frighted fhuns the light, and hurts when touch’d j
4 Or adder, which is wont to haunt the houfe.

Wherefore, as the fame poet commands,

4 Shepherd ! lay hold on ftones, and oaken clubs ;

4 And, when his threat mug head, and hiding neck,

4 Swelling with rage, he rears, then lay him flat. ’

(i) Virg. Georg. lib. iii. 414.

Or,

Chap. V. O/HUSBANDRY. 315

Or, that it may not be neceflary to do this with danger, burn womens
hair, or harts horns frequently, the fmell of which, moll of any thing,
will not fuffer the forefaid pefl to harbour in the fheep-cotes.

A certain fixed time of the year cannot be obferved in all countries
for {hearing fheep ; becaufe the fummer does neither advance {lowly
every-where, nor yet quickly ; and the bed way is, to confider the
feafons, and the flate of the weather, wherein the fheep may neither
feel the cold, if you ftrip it of its wool, nor the great heat, if you do
not as yet {hear it. But, at what time foever it {hall be fhorn, it ought
to be anointed with fuch a medicament as this. The juice of throughly
boiled lupins, and the dregs of old wine, and the dregs of oil, of each
an equal quantity, are mixed together ; and with this liquor the Iheep
is foaked, after it is {horn ; and when its {kin has imbibed the medica¬
ments, after it has been anointed with them for three days, upon the
fourth day, if the fea is in the neighbourhood, let it be led to the fea-
fhore, and dipped therein ; but, if otherwife, they boil rain-water a
little, after it has been hardened with fait in the open air for this pur-
pofe, and wafh the flock throughly therewith. Celfus affirms, that
cattle treated after this manner cannot become fcabby during that year j
nor is there any doubt, but that even by fo doing, and for that reafon,
their wool may grow again both fofter and longer.

CHAP. V.

Of Remedies for Sheep- cattle.

FOrafmuch as we have already given an account of the way of
managing and taking care of fuch as are in a good {late of health,
we fliall now give directions after what manner fuch as labour under
any ailments or difeafe, mud be relieved ; although that part of
our argument has been already almofl: wholly exhaufied, when we
difcourfed, in the preceding book, of remedies proper for greater cattle.
For, confidering that the nature of the bodies of lefler and greater qua¬
drupeds is almofl the very fame, the differences that can be found in
their difeafes and remedies are but few and fmall, which, how incon-
fiderable foever they may be, {hall not be omitted by us.

If all the cattle in general are fick, as we both directed before, and
now (becaufe we think it moll falutary for them) we again confidently
affirm it, in this cafe (which is the rnofl fpeedy and effectual remedy)

S f 2 let

3i6 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

let us change the paftures and the watering-places of the whole coun¬
try, and go to another climate, and a different conflitution of the air ;
and take care, if the plague which has attacked them, has had its rife
from fcorching heat, to make choice of fields that are fhady, and de¬
fended from the fun ; or, if it feized them from cold, then fuch as are
expofed to the fun. But the cattle muft be driven foftly, and with¬
out hurrying them, left their weaknefs be over-burdened and oppreffed
with long journeys. Neverthelefs, you muil not drive them altoge¬
ther in a flow and lazy manner ; for as it is not proper vehemently to
tofs and drive cattle that are weary with their difeafe, and to put them
upon the ffretch, fo it is an advantage to them to give them moderate
exercife, and to roufe them when they are as it were benumbed, and
not fuffer them to grow old, and be confumed with drowfinefs and
floth : then, when the flock is brought to the place, let it be diftributed
to the Peafants in parcels ; for they recover their health more eafily
when they are feparated, than when they are all together, either be-
caufe the infectious fleam of the difeafe is lefler in a fmall number, or
becaufe greater care is more expeditioufly taken of a few. Thefe there¬
fore, and the other things (that we may not now repeat the fame
thing?) which we have made mention of in the preceding book, we
ought to obferve, if all our fheep in general are fick ; but if only feme
of them in particular, then thofe following things are to be obferved :

Sheep are more frequently in felted with the fcab, than any other
animal whatfoever ; which commonly affeCts them, as our poet
fays (1),

* When a cold fhow’r, or winter’s hoary froft,

* Sink thro’ their wool, and pierce them to the quick. *

Or if, after {hearing them, you do not apply the forefaid medicine as a
remedy ; or if you do not walh away the fummer fweat in the fea, or
in a river ; or if you fuffer the flock, after it is fhorn, to be wounded
with the wild bramble-bufhes and thorns ; if you make ufe of a ftable
wherein mules, horfes, or affes, have flood ; but efpecially a fcanty
allowance of food caufes leannels, and leannefs the fcab. When this
has begun to creep in among them, it is known thus : The cattle
either fcratch the part affeCted with their teeth, or thump it with their
horn or hoof, or rub it againfta tree, or wipe it upon the walls; which
when you fhall fee any of them doing, you muft lay hold of them, and

(1) Vtrg. Georg, lib. iii. 442.

open

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 3t 7

open their wool ; for below it the fkin is rough, and there is as it were
a certain fcurf under it, which you mull: apply a remedy to, as foon as
poflible, left it defile and infedt the whole progeny ; and indeed it muft
be done quickly, forafmuch as both other cattle alfo, but efpecially
fheep, are affiliated with contagious diftempers.

But there are very many medicines for curing them, which we fliall .
therefore enumerate, not becaufe it may be neceffary to ufe them all,
becaufe in fOme countries fome of them cannot be found j and out of
many, fome one being found, may prove a remedy. But, in the firft
place, that compofition, which we explained and informed you of a
little before, does exceeding well, if with the dregs of wine, and the
fcum or dregs of oil, and the juice of boiled lupins, you mix white
hellebore, bruifed in equal quantity. Alfo the juice of green hemlock
is effectual to remove fcabbinefs ; which, in the fpring-time, when it
has begun to make its flalk, but not its feeds, they cut down, and bruife,
and put up in an earthen veflel the juice they have fqueezed out of it,
after they have mixed half a modius of toafted fait with two urns of the
liquor. And, when this is done, they pitch the veflel well, and bury it
in a dunghil ; and after it has been concodted for a whole year with
the heat of the dung, they afterwards take it out, and, having warmed
the medicine, they anoint the fcabby part therewith, which they firft
reduce, to a fore, by rubbing it with a rough tile or potfiherd, or with a
pumice- Hone.

Lees of oil, boiled in two thirds, is a remedy for the fame diftemper.
Alfo a man’s flale urine, heated with red-hot tiles. Neverthelefs, fome
people fet the urine itfelf upon the fire, and thereby leflen it one fifth
part, and mix with it an equal quantity of the juice of green hemlock ;
and then, upon potters veffels bruifed, they pour melted pitch and
parched fait, of each, one Jextarius . An equal quantity of bruifed
lulphur and liquid pitch, boiled into a confiflency with a flow fire, has
alfo good effedt. But the Georgic poem affirms, that there is not a more
excellent remedy, than (2)

* With piercing lancet to rip up the fore,

* Where next the top it opens. This difeafe,

* If hid, new life and nourifhment receives.’

Therefore it muft be laid open, and cured with medicines, as other
wounds are. Then it prefently adds, with equal prudence, that, when

ifieep

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. 3. 453!

3 1 8 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VII.

fheep have a fever, they muft be let blood in the paftern, or between
the hoofs for indeed

‘ For, to allay the fever’s burning heat,

‘ It has availed much, the leaping vein,

* Turgid with blood, below the foot to ftrike.*

We let them blood alfo under their eyes, and in their ears.

Boils alfo infeft fheep two different ways, either when the foul and
the chafe- gall arife in the very dividing of the hoof ; or when there is a
tubercle or fwelling in the fame place, almoft in the middle of which there
appears hair like that of a dog j and under it there is a fmall worm.
The foul and chafe-gall may be rooted out, by anointing them with
liquid pitch by itfelf ; or with alum, and fulphur and vinegar mixed
together ; or with a tender pomegranate, before it make its grains,
with brayed alum, and vinegar poured upon it j or with the green ruft
of copper reduced to a powder ; or a burnt gall allayed with rough
wine, and placed upon the part. The little fwelling, under which
there is a worm, muft be, with as much caution as poffible, cut off
all round with a knife, left, while we are cutting it off, we wound the
animal alfo which is below 3 for when that is wounded, it fends forth
a putrified, poifonous, bloody matter, which, when the wound is be-
fprinkled with it, makes it fo incurable, that the whole foot muft be
cut off: and, after you have cut it carefully off, drop burning hot tal¬
low from a burning torch into the wound.

It is proper, that a fheep difeafed in her lungs fhould be cured in
the fame manner as an hog, by inferting into its auricle what the far¬
riers call lungwort. We fpoke of it already, when we gave an account
of fuch medicines as are proper for greater cattle, But that difeafe is
for the moft part contracted in fummer, if they have wanted water ;
for which reafon, all quadrupeds whatfoever ought to have liberty to
drink plentifully in hot weather. Celfus advifes, if the fheep has any
difeafe in its lungs, to give it as much fharp vinegar as it can bear ; or
to pour into it with an horn, thro’ its left noftril, about three hemince of
ftale human urine warmed, and to put into their jaws two ounces of
greafe. Alfo wild-fire, which fhepherds call pufula (3), is incurable

(3) Ignis facer. This difeafe is commonly called St. Antony's Tire ; and facer , con¬
trary to its common fignification, is fuppofed to fignify the fame thing as execrandus, fce-
leflus , abominandus , exitialis , curfed, deftrudtive, abominable, <&c. Some call it eryfpe/as,
or rather, as Pollux , eruthropelas ; which is more expreffive of the nature of the diilanper,
which they define, a rednefs with a burning inflasnmation, attended with a fever , Sec. The
Roman Shepherds called it pufula, by which they meant, no doubt, a blitter with pus in it.

i which,

Chap.V. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 319

which, unlefs it be checked and confined to the Aril (beep that has
been feized with fuch a dileale, deftroys the whole flock with its con¬
tagion, forafmuch as it does not admit of any cure, either with medi¬
cines, or the knife : for, at every touch almoft, it grows angry, and is
more and more inflamed ; only a fomentation of goats milk it does not
make light of, which, when poured upon it, is only able to mitigate
its fiery fiercenefs and rage, rather deferring than hindering the intire
deflruftion of the flock. But Bolus Mendejius , a memorable Egyptian
author, whofe commentaries, which in Greek are called oVo^-
ficclx (4), are falily published under Democritus's name, advifes for this
frequently and carefully to view and examine the backs of the fheep,
that if by chance fuch a difeafe fhould be found in any of them, we
fhould prefently dig a pit in the threfhold of the fold, and therein
bury the fheep infedfed with the wild-fire, with its face upwards; and,
after it is put under ground, fuffer the whole flock to go over it; and
that by fo doing the difeafe will be repelled.

Bile, which in the fummer-time is not the leaf: deftrudtion that be¬
falls them, is expelled with a potion of Ifale human urine, which is
all'o a remedy for cattle that have the jaundice (5). But, if phlegm be
troublefome to them, they wrap flalks of wild favory, or wild cat¬
mint, in wool, and put them into their noftrils, and turn them to-
and-fro till the fheep fneezes. The broken legs of cattle are not cured
otherwife than thofe of men, being wrapped up in wool, foaked in oil
and wine, and prefently afterwards bound up and lurrounded with
fplints of fennel-giant. Knot-grafs (6) is alfo a grievous plague to

them,

. (4) 'T-Toprriy.ctla fomedmes fignify a man’s own private notes and obfervations for his
own ufe ;.fomerimes they fignify what the Romans called commentarium , that is, a writing,
wherein the heads only, and fummaries of things, arc touched upon, and which are writ¬
ten rather for the fake of memory, than in order to a full narration of things. Sometimes
alfo they fignify annotations or commentaries upon any author. Here, to be fure, they
muft fignify fhort commentaries, or fummaries of things

(5) focus arcuatum , or arquatum. This difeafe in cattle has its name from the rainbow,
becaufe fome parts of their bodies, efpecially their eyes, lofe their natural colour, and be¬
come yellowifh or greenifh.

(6) Herba fanguinaria. This herb was fo called by the Latins, a3 Pliny fays, becaufe
it flops a bleeding at the nofe, by putting the juice of it up the nofe; and by drinking the
juice of it with wine, they ufed to flop a flux. The Greeks called it polygonon , as feme
fay, becaufe it grows and fpreads every-where. Some call it polygonaton, becaufe of its
many joints and knots; which feems to be the reafon, why it is called in EngHJJj knot-grafs<
Matthiolus fays, that the male fort, which creeps upon the ground, grows in the fields,
areas of buildings, highways, and every-where; but the female, which grows up into a flalk,
is found moftly in well- watered and naoill places. Our author fays, that when a fheep
feeds upon it, toto ventre Hiflenditur, contrahiturque ; which I think mult fignify a fwelling

3 20 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

them, which if the ftieep feed upon, their whole belly is diftended
and bound up, and they fpit out a certain thin foam, of a noifome
fmell. You muft quickly let them blood under the tail, in that part
which is next the buttocks ; a vein muft be alfo opened in their upper-
lip. The ears of fuch as are purfy and broken-winded muft be cut
with a knife, and they muft change their quarters j which we are of
opinion ought to be done in all difeafes and plagues whatfoever.

Relief muft be given alfo to lambs which have the fever, or are
affected with any other ficknefs ; which, when they labour under any
dlfeafe, ought not to be admitted to their dams, left they transfer the
plague to them. Therefore the ewes muft be milked apart, and an
equal quantity of rain-water mixed with the milk, and that potion
given to fuch as have a fever. Many cure the fame with goats milk,
which they pour into their jaws through a little horn. The fcab upon
their chin and lips, which fhepherds call ojligo , is alfo rtiortiferous to
lucking lambs. This, for the moft part, is occafioned, if, by the im¬
prudence of the Shepherd, the lambs, or kids alfo, being let out, have
fed upon dewy herbs, which muft not at all be allowed ; but, when
that is done, it furrounds their mouth and lips with filthy ulcers like
wild-fire. Hyffop and fait, bruifed together in equal quantities, are
a remedy for it ; for, with this mixture, they rub throughly the roof
of their mouth, and their tongue, and their whole mouth. Prefently
after, they wafh the ulcers with vinegar, and then anoint them all
over with liquid pitch and hogs greafe. Some think proper to mix a
third part of brafs, or copper ruft, with two parts of hogs lard, and to
ufe this medicine after it is warmed. Some mix with water the leaves
of the cyprefs-tree bruifed, and fo wafh their ulcers, and the roof of
their mouth. But the way of caftrating we have already defcribed ;
nor indeed is there any other method obferved in caftrating lambs,
than in caftrating a larger quadruped.

of the belly, without any evacuation. The nature of this grafs is aftringent, fo that it has
a double effedb upon them, both to fwell and bind their belly, which is more probable,
than to render the words, convu/fes their belly , which dijlentia and contraffio frequently
Jiguify.

CHAP.

Chap, VL

Of HUSBANDRY,

321

CHAP. VI.

Of Goat-Cattle,

ND forafmuch as enough has been faid of lheep-cattle, I (hall now

return to the goat-cattle. But this kind requires and delights in

thickets, rather than in a champain fituation ; and finds exceeding
good pafture alfo in rough, rugged, and woody places : for it neither
diflikes brambles, nor is hurt with briars ; and it delights moil of all in
little trees, and in places where fhrubs grow. Thefe are the ftrawberry-
tree, the ever-green privet, wild Ihrub-trefoil, as alfo ever-green and
common-oak- fhrubs, which do not leap up to a great height. An he-
goat, who has two fmall warts hanging down from his neck, is rec¬
koned the beft, of a very large body, with thick legs, a full and fhort
neck, flaccid and fwagging ears, a fmall head, black, thick, fhining,
and exceeding long hair j for he himfelf alfo pafles through the hands
of the fhearers,

‘ For wretched feamens coats, and th’ ufe of camps ( i).’

But one of feven months is fit enough for procreating, becaufe he is
immoderate in his luft ; and while he is yet nourifhed with the dug, he
leaps upon his dam; and therefore he grows quickly old, even before
he is fix years complete, becaufe he is exhaufted with a too early defire
of venery, during the very firfl: years of his puerility. Therefore, when
he is five years old, he is reckoned not very fit for impregnating the
female.

A fhe-goat is chiefly approved, which is the mod like to the he-goat
we have defcribed, if (he has alfo a very great udder, and gives milk
in great abundance. In a calm conftitution of the climate, we will
purchafe this cattle without horns, but in a ftormy and rainy climate,
always that which has horns : for even in every region it is neceflary,
that the hufbands of the flocks fhould be without horns ; becaufe fuch
as are horned are almofl pernicious, by reafon of their petulancy, and
aptnefs to butt. But it is not expedient to have a greater number of this
kind, than one hundred heads in one inclofure, feeing a thoufand of
the wool-bearing kind may be provided with folds, with equal eafe
and conveniency. And when fhe-goats are firfl; bought, it is better to
buy one intire flock, than fmall parcels out of feveral, that while they

(i) Virg. Georg, iii. 313.

T t

are

322 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

are feeding, they may not feparate and divide into feveral diftindt par¬
cels, and that they may hand together quietly and with greater concord
in the goat-houfe. Violent heat hurts this cattle, but cold is more
hurtful, and efpecially to fuch as are great with young ; for the froft
deftroys their conception. Neverthelefs thefe are not the only things
which occafion abortion, but mall alfo, when they give them lefs of
it than is fufficient to fatiate them : therefore, unlefs it can be given
them in great abundance, no allowance of it at all ought to be given to
the flock.

The principal time for the putting the male to the female is com¬
monly during the autumn, before the month of December , that fo
they may bring forth their young when the fpring approaches, when
the thickets are budding, and when the woods begin firll to put forth
their new leaves. But you ought to chule fuch a goat-cote for them,
as is all paved with a natural rock, or by hand, becaufe there is no
litter laid under this cattle, and a diligent Goatherd fweeps their cotes
every day, and neither fuffers dung nor moifture to remain in them,
nor mire and dirt to be formed, all which are hurtful to goats : but, if
they be a generous race, they bring forth frequently two, fometimes
three at a time. It is a very forry increafe of the flock, when two
mothers produce but three kids, which, when they are brought forth,
are educated in the lame manner as lambs, except that the lafciviouf-
nefs of the kids mull be checked, and reltrained within narrower
bounds. Alfo, over-and-above plenty of milk, you muft give them
elm-feed, or Ihrub-trefoil, or ivy ; or you mull throw tops of the
maflich-tree alfo, and other fmall leaves, before them. But of twins,
one head, which appears to be the ftrongeft, is referved for recruiting
the flock, the other is delivered to the merchants. A kid mull not be
put under a fhe-goat of one or two years old to be fuckled and brought
up (for both thefe ages bring forth young) ; for none of them ought to
educate, but fuch as are three years old. But the young offspring mull
be prefently driven away from her that is but one year old, and have
admittance to her that is two years old, till it be lit for fale. Nor
mull the mothers be kept beyond eight years, becaufe, being wearied
with continual births, they become barren.

But the Overfeer of the cattle ought to be lively and adtive, hardy,
flout, exceeding patient of labour, brilk, chearful, courageous, and
daring, and one who eafily goes over rocks and defarts, and thro’ briars
and thorns ; and that he may not, as keepers of cattle of another kind,
follow, but for the moll part go before the flock : wherefore it is ne-
celfary, that he be exceeding nimble and adtive. The young goats,

while

Chap. VII. Of HUSBANDRY. 323

while they are browzing in the thickets, give place to the older goats.
She that gives place ought to be checked from time to time, that the
may not run before, but browze and gather her fodder quietly and
llowly, that fhe may both have a large udder, and not be of a very
lean and ill-favoured body.

CHAP. VII.

Of Medicines for Goats .

OTHER kinds of cattle, when they are afflided with a peftilence,
at firft gradually decay, and fade away with their difeafe, and
their languifliing illnefles. Young goats alone, though they be in good
plight of body, and chearful, are fuddenly cut down, and deftroy ’d in
whole flocks, as it were with fome fudden deftruddon. This ufes to
happen chiefly from great plenty of fodder : wherefore, when the
plague has ftruck one or two of them, they muft all prefently be let
blood : nor muft they be fed the whole day, but fhut up within their
folds the four middle hours of the day. But, if any other languifliing
illnefs infefts them, they are cured with a potion made of the roots of
the reed, and the white thorn, with which, after we have carefully
bruifed them with an iron peftle, we mix rain-water, and give that
alone to the cattle to drink. But, if this thing does not drive away
their ficknefs, the cattle muft be fold j or, if this cannot be done, they
muft be killed with the knife, and faked. Afterwards, fome fpace of
time interpofed, it will be proper to provide again another flock ; ne-
verthelefs, not before the peftilent time of the year, whether that be
in the winter, be removed by the fummer, or, if it be in the autumn, it
be changed by the fpring. But, when any particular one of them is
fick in the houfe, we fhall apply the fame remedies to them, as we
did to Bleep alfo. For when their fkin is diflended with water, which
difeafe the Greeks call ufpco^, (a dropfy) a flight incifion made in the
fkin under the flioulder will let out the pernicious water, then the
wound that is made may be cured with liquid pitch. When the geni¬
tal parts of one that has newly brought forth, are fwelled, or the after¬
births have not anfwered, let a fextarius of muft, boiled into two
thirds of the firft quantity, or, if that be wanting, the fame quantity
of good wine, be poured into their jaws j and let their natural parts be
filled with liquid ointment, wherein wax is the chief ingredient. But,

T t z that

324 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

that I may not now treat fully of every particular, we fhall cure goat-
cattle in the fame manner as has been already directed with refped: to
fheep.

CHAP. VIII.

Of the Method of making Cheefe.

THE care of making cheefe mufl not be omitted, efpecially ire
regions that lie at a great diflance from town, where there is
not the conveniency of carrying the milk-pail to market. Moreover,
if the cheefe be made of thin liquor, k mufl be fold as quickly as pofi.
fible, while it is yet green and retains the juice. If it be made of
rich and fat milk, it will bear to be kept longer. But it ought to be
made of pure milk, and of the frefheft, without any mixture : for
that which has flood long, and is mixed, contracts a fharpnefs. They
commonly curdle it with a lamb’s or a kid’s runnet, although it may
alfo be brought into a confiflency, both with the flower of the wild;
thiftle, and with the feeds of baflard-faffron, or the blefled thiflle ;
and alfo with fig-tree-milk, which the tree emitteth, if you wound its
green bark. But, indeed, that is the beft cheefe which has the lead
of the drug in it. But the weight of a denarius of runnet is the leak
that a pail of milk requires. Nor is there any doubt but cheefe made
of milk congealed with fig-tree-twigs taftes exceeding fweet.

But the milk-tub, when it is filled with milk, ought not to be
without fome gentle warmth. Neverthelefs, it rnufl not be brought
fo near as to touch the flames, as fome people are of opinion, but be
placed not far from the fire j and prefently after it is curdled, the liquor
rnufl be transferred into wicker-bafkets, cheefe-vats, or moulds ; for
it is of great importance, that the whey be flrained and feparated from
the condenfed fubftance as foon as poflible : for which reafon, the
country-people do not indeed fuller the moiflure to drop flowly from
it of its own accord j but, when the cheefe becomes a little more folid,
they put weights upon it, that thereby the whey may be fqueezed out :
then, as it is taken out of the moulds or frails, it is laid up in a dark
and cold place, upon the very cleaned: boards, that it may not be
fpoiled ; and it is fprinkled with bruifed fait, that it may fweat out
the acid liquor : and when it is hardened, it is prefled more vehe¬
mently, that it may be confpiflated and it is fprinkled again with

toafled

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 325

toaded fait, and condenfed again with weights. After this has been
done for nine days, it is wafhed throughly with fweet water, and
placed in fuch a manner under a (hade, upon hurdles- made for that
purpofe, that one cheefe may not touch another, and that it may be
moderately dried. Then, that it may keep the tenderer, they put it
clofe together in feveral dories, in a clofe place, not expofed to the
winds. Thus it neither becomes fpongy and full of holes, nor fait,
nor dry : the firft of which faults ufes to happen, if it be preffed but a
little j the fecond,. if it be feafoned with too much fait ; and the third,
if it be fcorched in the fun. This kind of cheefe may be exported alfo
beyond fea. For that which is defigned to be eaten in a few days,
while it is new, is made up with lefs care for, being taken out of the
wicker bafkets, it is put into fait and brine, and foon afterwards dried
a little in the fun.

Some, before they put the fhackles upon the cattle, put green pine¬
apples into the milk-pail, and prefently milk the cattle upon them ;
and they do not feparate them till they have tranfmitted the coagulated
fubdance into moulds. Some bruife the green kernels themfelves, and
mix them with the milk, and fo congeal it. There are fome who
put bruifed thyme, drained through a lieve, with the milk when they
curdle it. In like manner you may make it of whatever tade you
pleafe, by adding to it the feafoning you have made choice of. But
that way of making what we call hand-preffed cheefe, is exceeding
well known j for when it is a little congealed, and while it is yet
warm in the milk-tub, they cut it j and, having fprinkled it with boil¬
ing water, they either fhape it by hand, or fqueeze the whey out of
it in box-wood moulds. Alfo that which is hardened in brine, and
fo coloured with the fmoak of apple-tree wood, or of dubble or draw,
is not of a difagreeable tade (i). But now let us return to the breed¬
ing oj cattle.

(1) Cheefe dried in the fmoak was much efteemed by the Romans, and preferred to all
other forts j and at Rome there was a particular place for fmoking it, which Pliny fays
made it very agreeable to the tafte, lib. xi. 42. Our author recommends the fmoak of
apple- tree-wood or ftubble for that purpofe.

CHAP.

326

Book VII.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA
CHAP. IX.

Of Swine , and of Medicines proper for them .

IN all kinds of four-footed beads, the fhape and form of the male
is chofen with great care, becaufe the progeny is frequently more
like the father than the mother : wherefore, in fwine-cattle alfo, cer¬
tain of them mud be approved, which are choice and lingular for the
largenefs of their whole body, and fuch as are rather fquare, than thofe
that are long or round, with an hanging-down belly, vad buttocks,
but not fo long legs and hoofs, of a large and glandulous neck, with
fhort fnouts, and turned upwards ; and especially, which is more to
the purpofe, the males mud be exceeding falacious, and fuch as are
proper for gendering from the age of one year, till they come to their
fourth year : neverthelefs they can alfo impregnate the female when
they are fix months old. Sows of the longed dze and make are approved,
provided they be, in the red of their members, like the boars, which
have been already defcribed.

If the country is cold, and liable to hoar-frods, the herd mud be
chofen of an exceeding hard, thick and black bridle. If the country be
temperate, and lie expofed to the fun, the cattle that is fmooth, and
has no bridles, or even that which is white, and proper for the mill,
and the bakehoufe, may be fed. The female is reckoned fit for pigging
till die be almod feven years old; and by how much the more fruitful
die is, by fo much the fooner does die grow old. One of a year old is
not altogether unfit for conceiving ; but die ought to be put to the boar
in the month of February , that fo, being four months with young, She
may farrow in the fifth, at a time when the herbs are more folid and
fubdantial, that fo the pigs may both have milk in its greated drength
and perfection, and that, when they leave off receiving nouridunent
from the udder, they may be fed with dubble, and with fuch legu¬
minous fruits as fall to the ground of their own accord. This is what is
pra&ifed in regions very remote from cities, where nothing turns to ac¬
count but the bringing them up for breed ; for, in regions contiguous to
the city, a fucking pig mud be exchanged for money ; for fo the mother,
by not bringing-up her young, is freed from labour, and will more
quickly conceive, and bring forth again ; and that She will do twice a
year. •

The males are cadrated, that they may grow fat, either after their
•fird coition, when they are fix months old, or after they have often

2 gen-

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 327

gendered, when they are three or four years old. They alfo exulcerate
the wombs of the females with an iron inflrument, and fhut them up
with the cicatrices, that they may not breed. What reafon fhould induce
people to this, I do not underftand, except it be fcarcity of food ; for,
where there is great plenty of fodder, it is always expedient to put them
upon breeding, to raife a new offspring.

This cattle will make a fhift in any grounds whatfoever, whatever
their fituation may be ; for they are fed very commodioufly both upon
mountains and in plains j better neverthelefs in marfhy, than in thirfty
lands. Woods are moft proper for them, which are cloathed with the
common oak, the cork-tree, the beech-tree, the tall cerrit s (i), and
ever-green oaks, wild-olive trees, tamarifk(2), hazel, and wild pomife-
rous trees, fuch as the white hawthorns, Greek carob-trees, the juniper,
the lote or nettle-tree, the pine, the cornel-tree, the ftrawberry-tree,
the plum-tree, and Chrift’s thorn, and choak-pear- trees ; for thefe
grow mellow, and ripen at different times, and fatiate the herd almoffc
the whole year. But, where there is a fcarcity of trees, we will endea¬
vour to get for them food that grows immediately upon the ground,
and prefer dirty and miry paflure to that which is dry, that they may
fearch all the marfhes and bogs, and dig out the worms, and wallow
in the mire, which is mighty agreeable to this cattle ; as alfo that
they may be at liberty to fpoil and wafte the waters ; for it is alfo of
great benefit to them to do this, efpecially during the fummer, and
to grub up the fmall roots of the aquatile wood, as of the rufh, the
flag, and the low baftard reed, which the vulgar calls canna. For,
indeed, land that is cultivated makes fwine fat, when it is graffy, and
planted with very many forts of pomiferous trees, that throughout
the different feafons of the year it may yield apples, plums, pears, nuts
of many different forms, and figs. Neverthelefs, we muft not, be¬
cause of thefe, be fparing of our barns: for, when forage fails with¬
out doors, we muft give it them by hand. For which purpofe, a great

(1) Cerrus. This kind of oak, as has been already faid, according to the account that
Pliny gives of it, Nat. Hifi. hb.xvi. 5. was in his days fcarcely known in moft parts of
Italy. It is a veiy tall tree, with an acorn unpleafant and difagreeable to the eye, rough
and unpleafant to the hand, when it is handled, with an echinated calyx, or a cup belet
with prickles like an hedge-hog, and much longer than that of other oaks.

(2) Tamaricibus. Some think that this is not the true reading, becaufe the fruit of this
tree is exceeding fmall, and covered with a down, and cannot be good for fwine. Yhny
Toys, that it is only fit for brooms, and denies that it has any fruit, Nat. Hifi. lib. xvi. 26.
Yontedera thinks, that the true reading is termitibus , which ought to be joined with the
preceding word o!eafirisy fo thac ic may fignify, boughs of the olive-tree with fruit upon
them. But as other authors fay, that it bears fruit, and Matthiolus makes it the fame
with the Myrica , probahly Ylbiy meant a certain wild fort in fome parts of Italy.

quail-

328 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII-

quantity of maft muft be laid up in water-cifterns (3), or in the fmoak
in lofts : they muft alfo have an allowance of beans, and fuch-like le¬
gumes, when their low price permits it ; and efpecially in the fpring,
while green things are as yet in the milk, which for the moil; part is
hurtful to fwine : therefore in the morning, before they go forth to
the paftures, they mull be fuftained with l'uch food as has been laid
up in (lore for them, left the herbs, which are not come to maturity,
give them a loofenefs, and the cattle be emaciated with that diftem-
per j nor ought they to be all fhut up clofe together, as our other flocks j
but the fwine-fties muft be made after the manner of porticoes, wherein
they may be fhut up, either after they have farrowed, or when they are
pregnant alfo : for fwine efpecially, when they are fhut up, and confu-
ledly huddled in whole herds together, lie one upon another, and make
one another caft their young, or overlay and Another them. Wherefore,
as I faid, fwine-fties muft be built joining to walls, to the height of
four feet, that the fow may not be able to leap over the inclofures j for
fhe ought not to be covered over, that fo the Keeper may from the up¬
per part count the number of the pigs $ and if the mother be lying
upon any of them, and fmothering them, pull it from under her.

But let the Keeper be vigilant, adlive, induftrious, knowing, and
fkilful and he ought exadtly to remember all the fwine which he
feeds, both fuch as are kept for breed, and have pigs actually under
their care, and alfo thofe that are younger, that he may confider and
take care of every one of their litters in particular : and let him always
obferve her that is near the time of her farrowing, and fhut her up,
that (lie may bring forth her young in the fwine-ftie ; then let him
mark down prefently how many, and what kind the young ones are
of ; and efpecially take care, that none of them be brought up by a
ltrange nurfe : for pigs, if they efcape out of the hog-ftie, very eafily
mix themfelves with others ; and the fow, when fhe has laid herfelf
down, gives her dugs equally to a ftranger and to her own. There¬
fore the chief bufinefs of a fwineherd is to fhut up every one of them
with her own offspring, who, if his memory fails him, fo that he can¬
not know every fow's progeny in particular, may, with liquid pitch,
put the fame mark upon the fow and her pigs, and either by letters,

(3) Cijlemis in aquam. It is very probable, that this fentence is corrupt, for it can¬
not be fuppofed, that mart can be kept long in water without fpoiling j fo that Pontederd’s
correction feems very probable, cijlemis fine aqua , vel fumofis tabulatis ; in cifterns with¬
out water, or in fmoaky lofts ; or perhaps the author diredls, that they be laid up in
order to throw them into the cifterns, when they go to drink, that they may then eat
them, after they have been foftened in the water.

or

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 329

or by fome other marks, diftinguifh the dam and every one of her
young. For, in a greater number, it is neceffary to have different
marks, that the Keeper’s memory may not be confounded. Never-
thelefs, becaufe it feems troublefome and difficult to do this in large
herds ; it is mod: convenient fo to build the fwine-fties, that their
threffiolds may rife to fuch an height, as the nurfe may juft be able
to get out of it, but the fuckling not be able to ftep over it j fo a
ftranger does not creep in ; and every litter, which, neverthelefs,
ought not to exceed the number of eight heads, waits for its own
mother in her bed-chamber. Not that I am ignorant, that the fecun¬
dity of breeding fows is productive of a greater number ; but becaufe
fhe that brings up more, lofes her ftrength, and very quickly decays.
And thofe which fuckle and bring up their own young, mull be fuf-
tained with boiled barley, left they be reduced to extreme leannefs,
and from that to fome deftruCtive diftemper. But let a diligent
Swineherd frequently fweep the hog-houfe, and oftener the fwine-
fties : for tho’ the forefaid beaft is very nafty and dirty in its way of
feeding, neverthelefs it loves to have a very clean bed to lie in. This
is commonly the way of managing of fwine-cattle, that enjoy a good
ftate of health.

CHAP. X.

Of Medicines proper for Swine .

OUR next bufinefs is to tell, what care is to be taken of that
which is difeafed. The figns of fwines being in a fever, are,
when they hang down their heads, and carry them awry • and, after
they have run a little up and down the paftures, they fuddenly ftand
ftill, and, being feized with a giddinefs, fall down. We muft take
particular notice, to what fide their heads incline, that we may let
them blood in the ear on the contrary fide. Let us alfo ftrike a vein
under their tail, at the diftance of two inches from their buttocks,
which is large enough in that place; and it muft be firft beaten with
the fprig of a vine; then, when it is fwelled with the ftroke of a rod,
be opened with a lancet; and, after they have been blooded, the vein
muft be bound up with the rind of the willow-tree, or of the elm-
tree alfo. When we have done this, we muft keep the cattle one or
two days in the houfe, and give them moderately warm water, as

U u much

3 30 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

much as they (hall defire 3 and to each of them a fextarius of barley-
meal. /

Such of them as have fwellings in the glands under the throat, rauft
be let blood under the tongue 3 and, when it has flowed abundantly,
it will be proper, that their whole mouth he rubbed over with bruifed
fait and wheat-meal. Some think it a more prefent and effectual re¬
medy, when they pour into each of them, through an horn, three
cup-fulls of garum or fait filh-pickle ; then they bind cloven tallies or
cuttings of fennel-giant with a fmall flaxen cord, and hang them fo at
their necks, that the fwellings may be touched with the fennel-giant
cuttings. Ivory faw-duft, or filings .of ivory, alfo, mixed with parch¬
ed fait, and beans bruifed very fmall, thrown before them when they
are hungry, before they go forth to their paftures, is reckoned very
falutary to fuch of them as naufeate their food. Alfo the whole herd
ufes to be fo fick, that it is emaciated, and takes no food ; and when
they are led forth to the paftures, they lie down in the middle of the
field, and, being feized with a certain lethargy, they give themfelves
wholly up to fleep in the heat of the fummer-fun 3 which when they
do, they fhut up the whole herd in a covered hog-houfe, and keep
them from drinking and forrage for one day : the day after, they give
them, while they are thirfty, the root of the ferpentine cucumber
bruifed and mixed with water 3 which when the cattle have drunk,
they are taken with a naufeating, and both vomit and purge 3 and,
when all the bile is driven out, they allow them chichlings or beans
fprinkled with very ftrong brine, and then they give them (as they do
to men) warm water to drink.

But, as thirft, during the fummer, is hurtful to all four-footed
beafts whatfoever, fo, moft of all, is it pernicious to fwine. Where¬
fore we do not command, that, as the goat and the fheep, fo this ani¬
mal alfo fhould be led twice to water : but that, if it can be done, it
be conftantly kept hard by a river, lake, or pond, during the rifing of
the Dog-ftar 5 becaufe, as it is an exceeding hot beaft, it is not con¬
tented with drinking the water, unlefs it plunges its nafty fat flanks,
and belly diftended with fodder, into it, and cools them therein : nor
does it delight more in any thing, than to wallow in brooks, and in a
miry lake or bog. But, if the fituation of the place does not allow
this to be done, you rauft draw water out of wells, and put it into
troughs in large quantities, and give it them to drink plentifully 5
with which if they be not abundantly fatiated, they become difeafed
in their lungs. And this difeafe is exceedingly well cured, by inferting
lungwort into the flaps of their ears j concerning which little root we

have

Chap. XI. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 331

have carefully and very often fpoken already. Alfo the pain of a
diftempered fpleen ufes to plague them, which happens, when there
chances to be a great drought and, as the Bucolic poem fpeaks,

* When on all lides the apples fcatter’d lie
4 Each under its own tree (1).’

For it is an infatiable cattle, and the fwine, while, beyond all
meafure, they eagerly feek after fodder that is fweet, labour and are
affedted in the fummer with a fwelling or growth of the fpleen j from
which they are relieved, if troughs be made of tamarifks and butchers
broom, and filled with water, and fet before them when they are
thirfty : for the medicinal juice of the wood, being fwallowed with
their drink, puts a fop to the intefline fwelling (2).

CHAP. XL

Of Caflrating of Swine.

THERE are two times obferved for caflrating this kind of cattle,
the ipring and autumn : and there are two different ways of
performing it. The firfh is that which we have already given an ac¬
count of ; when, after two wounds or incifions are made, the teflicles
are fqueezed out one by one, through each of the wounds : the other
is more fpecious, but more dangerous ; which, neverthelefs, I fhall not
omit. After you have cut with a knife, and pulled out one of the
virile parts, thrufl in a penknife through the wound which you have
made, and cut the middle fkin as it were, which intervenes between
the two genital members, and with your crooked fingers pull out the
other teflide alfo : thus, having applied the other remedies, which we
taught you before, there will be but one cicatrice.

But there is one thing which I thought ought not to be concealed,
which concerns the religion of a Mailer of a family, and which may raife
lcruples, and fuperflitious fancies, in his mind. There are fome fows,

(1) Virgil. Eclog. vii.

(2) The only difficulty here is, how troughs can be made of rufcus , bu chers broom.
Some thick, that the true reading is tamaricis e irunco Pliny, lib . xxiv. 9. fpeaks of
canals or troughs made of the tamarix. Authors are not fo very cxadt in every fen-
tence, as to be confined always to the very letter; perhaps Columella meant no more,
than that the infide of their troughs ffiould be well lined with the branches of thefe
trees.

U u 2 which

332 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

which eat their own young, which, when it happens, is not looked
upon as a prodigy ; for, of all cattle whatfoever, fwine are the moft
impatient of hunger ; fo that, fometimes, if they want food, they
devour, not only the offspring of other creatures, (if they have liberty)
but their own alfo. I have dilcourfed accurately enough (if I am not
mirtaken) of Herds of big Cattle, of the other forts of Cattle, and of
Shepherds and Herdfmen, by whom flocks and herds of four-footed
beafts are taken care of, tended, and looked after, both in the houfe
and without doors, fo far as human prudence and induftry are re-
quifite.

CHAP. XII.

Of Dogs .

I Shall now, as I promifed in the preceding book, fpeak of dumb
keepers, or watches, tho’ a dog is falfly called a dumb keeper : for
what man living can publifh or proclaim more dirtindtly, and with fo
great vociferation, the approach of a heart, or a thief, as he can do with
his barking ? What fervant is there, that loves his mafter more ? What
companion more faithful ? What keeper or watchman lefs liable to
bribes and corruption ? What watchman can be found more vigilant ?
In a word, Who will be more fteady in avenging your injuries, or in
protecting you from them ? Wherefore an Hufbandman ought to pur-
chafe and maintain this animal, even among the very firft things, be-
caufe he keeps and guards both the manor-houfe, and the fruits, and
the family, and the cattle.

But there are three different purpofes to which regard is had in pur-
chafing and maintaining this animal : for one kind is chofen to protest
us againft the fnares and infidioufnefs of men, and this keeps and
guards the manor-houfe, and fuch things as are adjoining to it. But
a fecond kind is chofen for repelling the injuries of men, and wild
hearts ; and this kind watches over the rtables and folds at home, and
the cattle when they are feeding abroad. A third kind is provided for
hunting withal ; and this not only gives no afliffance to the Hufband-
man, but it takes him off his bufinefs, and makes him lazy and flothful:
therefore we mud fpeak of thehoufe-dog, and of that of the Shepherd ;
for the hunting-dog does not at all belong to our profeflion.

The

Chap. XII. O/HUSBANDRY, 333

The keeper of the manor-houfe muft be chofen of a very large body,
and of a vaft canorous bark, that the evil-doer may be firft terrified
when he hears him, and afterwards alfo when he fees him ; and even
fometimes when he is not feen, may notwithstanding, with his hideous
roaring and growling, put to flight him that lies in wait to do you
hurt. But let him be of one colour, and let that rather be chofen
white in a Shepherd’s dog, and black in one for the manor-houfe ; for
a various colour is commendable in neither. A Shepherd approves of
the white, becaufe he is unlike to the wild beafts ; and fometimes
there is great occafion for fome remarkable difference to diftinguifh
them, when he is driving away the wolves, either in a dark morning,
or in the twilight in the evening alfo, left, infteadof the wolf, he ftrike
the dog, if he is not very confpicuous by his white colour.

The manor-houfe dog, which is placed there in order to oppofe the
mifchievous deeds of wicked men, whether the thief comes when it is
fair daylight, appears more terrible when he is black ; or whether he
comes in the night, the dog is not fo much as feen, becaufe of the
refemblance he bears to darknefs ; wherefore being covered with the
darknefs, he has fafer accefs to him who lies in wait to hurt you.
One that is fquare is more efteemed than one that is long or fhort,
with fo huge an head, that it may feem to be the greateft part of his
body, with dejedted and propendent ears, black or fiery red-coloured
eyes radiant with fparkling dazling light, a large and hairy breaft or
cheft, broad fhoulders, thick and rough briftly legs, a fhort tail, ex¬
ceeding large toes and nails, which in Greek are called S'pux.ai (i).
This fhall be the form, and fize, and make of the manor-houfe dog,
moft to be commended ; but his manners or natural temper ought
neither to be exceeding gentle and mild, nor, on the contrary, cruel
and fierce ; becaufe with the firft he fawns upon a thief alfo, and
with the laft he falls upon the domeftics. It is enough, that they be
fevere, and not fawning ; and that they fometimes look upon their
fellow-fervants with fomewhat of a more angry and furly countenance,
and be always in a fume and rage againft ft rangers. But efpecially,
when they are upon guard, they ought never to be feen fleeping, but
always upon the watch ^ not wandering up and down, but afliduous
and circumfpedt, rather than rafh and inconfiderate : for thofe never
give the alarm, or warning of any thing, but what they are very fure
of j thefe are roufed up with any vain noile, and groundlefs fufpicion.

(1) A e/nAt, in fome editions <A °J, which fignifies, handfuls of any things. Hrjy.
chius fays, that the word figmfies th e palm of the hand : when applied to dogs, no doubt,
it fignifies their toes and nails.

I thought

334 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

I thought that thefe things were therefore proper to be mentioned, be-
caufe not nature only, but diicipline alfo, forms the manners and tem¬
per, that fo, when we have occafion to buy them, we may make
choice of fuch as have thefe qualities; and, when we educate fuch as are
whelped at home, we may form them with fuch inftitutions as thefe.
Nor is it of any great importance, whether manor-houfe dogs be of
heavy bodies, and not very fwift, or no ; for they ought to do more
upon the place where they are pofted, and in the paflage and entry to
the houfe, than in (allying out to the open ground, and at a diftance
from their (ration : for they ought always to remain about the inclo-
fures, and within the edifice, yea never fo much as to retire to any
great difiance from it ; and they do their duty well enough, if they
both fagacioufiy fmell any one coming toward them, and terrify him
with their barking, and do not fuffer him to come nearer, or violently
fall upon him that perfifts to approach. For the firft thing is, not to
be attacked ; and the fecond thing is, when provoked and fet upon,
to defend and avenge himfelf with courage and perfeverance. And
what has been faid, relates to domeftic guards ; what follows, to pa-
fioral.

A dog for keeping cattle ought neither to be in fo bad a plight of
body, nor fo fwift, as one that purfues fallow-deer and (tags, and the
lwifteft animals ; nor fo fat and heavy, as the guard and keeper of
the manor-houfe and the barn : but, neverthelefs, he ought to be ro-
buft, and to a certain degree prompt and bold, becaufe he is prepared
and appointed for quarrelling and fighting, no lefs than for running,
feeing he ought to repel and oppofe the fnares of the wolf, and pur-
fue the favage and cruel robber when he flies, and (hake the prey out
of his jaws, and refcue it, and take it away from him. Wherefore
a longer and more produced or out-ftretched date or make of body
is more fit and fuitable for thefe adventures, than the (hort, or even
than that which is fquare; becaufe (as I (aid) neceffity fometimes re¬
quires, that a bead fhould be purfued with great celerity : the reft of
his joints, being like the members of the houfe-dog, are equally ap¬
proved.

Almoft the fame food muft be given to both kinds : for, if your
lands are fo wide and fpacious, as to fuftain flocks and herds of cattle,
barley-meal with whey is excellent food for all dogs whatfoever, with¬
out any diftinfition. But if your land is planted with trees, and with¬
out pafture, they muft be fatiated with bread made of red or bearded
or common wheat : neverthelefs, you muft mix the liquor of boiled

beans

Chap. XII. Of HUSBANDRY. 335

beans with it: but it muft be lukewarm ; for, when it is boiling hot,
it creates madnefs.

To this quadruped, whether male or female, venery muft not be
permitted, till after it is a year old for, if it is allowed, it confumes
both their body and their ftrength, and makes their minds to dege¬
nerate. The firft birth of one that has brought forth muft be taken
away from her j for, being a young novice, without any experience,
fhe cannot nurfe them rightly : and her educating them fpoils the
growth of her 'whole habit. The males procreate in a youthful man¬
ner till they are ten years old ; after that age they feem unfit for
coupling with the female, becaufe the offspring of fuch as are older
proves dull and unadtive. The females conceive till they are nine
years old 5 nor are they ufeful after their tenth year. The whelps
muft not be let out during their firft fix months, till they are grown
ftrong, except it be to their dam, in order to play and wanton : after¬
wards they muft be kept in chains in the day-time, and loofed during
the night. Nor will we ever fuffer thofe, whofe generous difpofitions
we have a mind to preferve, to be educated at the dugs of a ftrange
nurfe ; becaufe both the maternal milk and fpirits do always much
more improve the growth of their genius, and of their body. But, if
flie that has brought forth is deficient in milk, goats milk will be
proper to be given to the puppies, till they be four months old. * 1

Alfo they muft be called by names that are not very long, that
every one of them may hear the more fpeedily when he is called :
neverthelefs not with fhorter names, than what may be pronounced
with two fyllables ; as the Greek name cntuAa.%, (puppy) the Latin
ferox , (furly) the Greek Aaxw, ( lacon ) the Latin celer (nimble, or
lwift-foot) ; or for the female, as the Greek names a-ztroJ^, (fpeedful)
a Ax», (courage) pw/xn, (prowefs) and the Latin lupa , (harlot) cerva ,
(deer-like) tigris (tygrefs). It will be proper to curtail the puppies,
the fortieth day after they are w’helped, in this manner : there is a
nerve, which creeps all along through the joints of the back-bone, as
far as the extremity of the tail j they take faft hold of this with their
teeth j and, after they have drawn it out a little, they bite or break it
off ; which being done, the tail does not grow out into an abominable
length ; and (as very many Shepherds affirm) madnefs, a difeafe mortal
to this kind, is thereby prevented (2).

C I I A P.

(2) This laft paragraph, relating to the curtailing of whelps, is quoted by Tiiuy , lib. viii.
(. 41. and commended in order to prevent their running mad, which, he fays, is fatal
to them during the dog-days ; and fays, that, in order to prevent it, they ufed at that

time

336

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VII.

CHAP. XIII.

Of Difeafes incident to Dogs, and of the Way of curing

them.

BUT commonly, during the fummer, the ears of dogs are fo ex-
ulcerated by flies, that they oft-times lofe them intirely : to
prevent which, they muff be anointed with bitter nuts bruifed. But,
if they are already affedted with ulcers, it will be proper to drop
into the wounds liquid pitch boiled with hogs-lard. The tykes fall
off them, when they are touched with this fame medicine ; for they
muft not be pulled off with the hand, left, as I faid before, they make
ulcers.

The remedies for a dog plagued with fleas are, either cumin
bruifed in equal quantity with white hellebore, and mixed with water,
and rubbed upon them; or the juice of the ferpentine cucumber (1) ;
or, if you have not thefe, old lees of oyl, fprinkled over their whole
body. If the fcab infeft them, bruife the fame quantity of cytifus ,

time to mix the dung of a cock, or an hen, with their food ; bu1-, if the difeafe prevented
them, they ufed to mix white ellebore with if. But this difeafe is not only fatal to the
dogs themfelves, but to men alfo, if they be bitten by them ; for, as Cornelius Celfus
fays, lib. v. c. i. from this wound, if timely affiftance is not given to prevent the bad
effedts of it, there arifes what the Greeks call an hydrophobia , or fear of water, a moft
terrible difeafe, whereby the Tick perfon is both tormented with thirft, and with dread of
water at the fame times. There is, fays he, very little hope of the recovery of a perfon
thus afflidted; but yet there is one only remedy, which is, to throw the perfon all of a
fudden into a pond, without his apprehending or forefeeing it before it is done. Pliny
fays, that there was lately found out a remedy by a certain oracle, viz. the root of the
wild rofe-bufh, which they called cynofrhodos.

It would be needlefs to give many inftances of the fagacity and faithfulnefs of dogs,
of their courage in defending their mailers, and of their forrow at their death ; of which
Pliny y in his nat. hifi. lib. viii. c. 40. gives feveral inftances.

(1) Cucumis anguine us : Probably it is fo called from its figure, refembling the winding
of a ferpent; accordingly by fome authors it is called cucumis flexuofus. Plhiy fays, that
fome thought it w'as the fame with that which is called cucumis filveflrisy of which they
made a medicine, w'hich they called elaterium , by exprefling the juice out of its feed :
And Cornelius Celfus , lib. v. cap. 12. fays, that the juice of the feed of the wild cucumber
was fo called, becaufe of its ftrong purgative quality, aVo £Act>, pellere , quafi depulfo-

rium. And Galen, in explicat. vocurn Hippocrat. fays, that not only this juice, but every
thing that purged the belly downward, was fo called. And Hefychius fays, that the word
fignifies a cathartic medicine ; fo that it feems very ftrange, that the plant itfelf fliould be
called by this name ; or that it fhould be thought to be fo called from the elaftic force
of the feed leaping out of it, as fome authors have faid.

or

Chap. XIII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 337

or {h rub- trefoil, and fefamum , or oily-grain together; and mix them
throughly with liquid pitch, and anoint the part affeCted : which
medicine is reckoned proper alfo for men. This fame peft, if it be
more violent, is removed with the liquor that diftils from the cedar-
tree. Their other difeafes mud be cured in the fame manner as we
dire&ed with refpeCt to other animals. Thus far of leffer cattle.
We fhall prefently, in the following book, give directions concerning
manor-houfe pafturings, which comprehend the care and management
of fowls, fifties, and wild four-footed beads.

X x

L. JUNIUS

[ 338 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK EIGHTH.

CHAP. I.

Of Paflwdngs in and about the Manor-houfe (i).

WE have in feven books, Publius Sihinus , given an account of
thofe things which almoft confummate the fcience of Tilling
and Cultivating the ground ; as alfo of fuch things as the confideration
of the bufinefs of managing cattle required. Now this book fhall
bear the title of the following number : not becaufe thofe things,
which we intend to fpeak of, require the immediate and peculiar care
of the Hufbandman ; but becaufe they ought not to be undertaken

(i) The Romans', who for many ages lived after a very plain manner, and con¬
tented thcmfelves with what their own country produced, without any great art, apply¬
ing themfelves more to the plain culture of the ground, than to any nice improvements
in Husbandry j after they became acquainted with Greece and Africa , improved their
Agriculture to a great degree ; and their men of learning and curiofity colledted all the
knowledge they could have both from Greek and Carthaginian authors, which were very
numerous, and alfo from their own obfervation ■ fo that in a little while the art of Hus¬
bandry was carried to as great, if not grcarer, perfedtion in Italy , than in Greece and
Africa : and they not only adopted the ufeful improvements of Greece , but foon fell into
their delicacy and luxury • which was in nothing more remarkable than in their fifh-
ponds, which they carried to extravagant erpences: and of fuch things as they derived
from the Greeks , they frequently retained their Greek names, as we fee in this author ;
who in this, and the laft chapter of the Vllth book, has more Greek words, than in
his whole work befide; which probably he did, tacitly to expofe and cenfure a piece of
vanity, which was more common in our author’s days, when luxury was come to its
greateft height, of giving foreign names to a great many of their delicacies. And as
this chapter could not be fo well tranilated, without leaving the Greek words in the text,
as our author has done; if any want to know the true Signification of them, they may find
it, by carting their eye on the place referred to by the number placed after the word.

and

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 339

and carried on in any other place but in the country, or in manor-
houfesj and they turn to more advantage to thofe that live in the
country, than to thofe that live in cities. For it is no very fmall
peny that feeding of fmaller animals within the precin&s of the
manor-houfe brings in to the Hufbandman, as well as feeding of
cattle, fince with the dung of fowls they both cure the leaned vine¬
yards, and all forts of young trees, and of land whatfoever : and with
the fowls themfelves they make plentiful provilion for their kitchen,
and furnifh their table with valuable and excellent difhes : lafily, with
the price of the animals that are fold, they increafe the yearly in¬
come of the manor-houfe. Wherefore I thought it proper to lpeak
of this kind of paduring alfo ; and it is commonly carried on either
in, or near to, and about, the manor-houfe.

In the manor-houfe there is what the Greeks call opviSruvas (2), and
'srepicrepeuvcts (3) ; and, where there ris conveniency of water at com¬
mand, lySrvoTpoipeTa, (4), alfo, are carried on and managed with fedu-
lity and care. But, that we may rather fpeak Englijh, all thefe are
the very lame as cells, and rooding-places for common poultry-yard-
fowls ; and likewife as receptacles of luch fowls as are fhut up in
coops, and fattened, and of aquatile animals. Moreover, about the
manor-houie are placed fx,eXiaaa>vti (f), and %yvorpo(pe7cc (6), yea A ccyo-
rpocpeicc (7) alfo, are managed and tended with great care and atten¬
tion. Which bee-ftalls, or lodgings for bees, we in like manner call
apiaries • and the harbouring places for fwimming fowls, which de¬
light in lakes, and pools, and fifh-ponds, we call aviaries ; and thofe
alfo of wild cattle, which are kept confined in inclofed woods and
forefis, we call vivaries.

(2) ’OfviQcovM, acc. p!ur. aviaries, or poul'ry houfes. Varro , lib. iii. c. 3. by this word
meant receptacles of all manner of birds or fowls fed within the walls of the villa.

(3) acc. plur. 'csietsifiuv, ihe fame as ‘znesneytresqibiw, a dove-houfe or
pigeon-houfe, for breeding and feeding doves and pigeons.

(4) ’lX‘^VOT&<P*>cv’ a fifh-pcnd, a fifh, and rfapa, to feed or nourifh • a lake,

pool, or pond, inclofed in fuch a manner as the fillies cannot efcape.

(5) M ihioauv, a bee-hive or bee llall, where bees were kept. Varro alfo makes ufe of
this word ; and it feems the word apiarium was not much in ufe : p.ihnroa,, a bee.

(6) xw'ot£??«oj', a goofc-pen, or place where geefe are fed : %»>, a goofe, and to

feed.

(7) leporarium , a hare-warren: huyoc or ^ctyuos, an hare. Varro fays,
that he would have this word taken in a latger fenie than what the antient Rowans meant
by it, who kept nothing but hares in them ; but he would have it to fignify all inclo-
iures contiguous to the villa, where wild animals are fhut up and fed.

X X 2

CHAP.

340

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

CHAP. II.

Of the fever al Kinds of common Poultry-yard Hens and
Cocks proper to he provided and brought up. "

rT'“*Herefore I {hall firft give diredions concerning thofethat are fed
within the precinds of the manor-houfe : and, indeed, with
rel'ped to others, it is perhaps doubted whether country-people ought
to have them in their pofleffion. But, for the mod part, it -is a com¬
mon and ufual thing for an Hufbandman to bring up hens : and they
are either of the common poultry kind, which they keep in farm-
houfes ; or what they call ruftic hens; or of that kind they call African
hens. The common poultry-yard or farm-houfe hen, is a fowl which
is commonly feen in all manor-houfes whatfoever : the ruftic hen ,
which is not unlike to that which is common in all farm-houfes, is
deceived and caught by the fowler ; and there are great numbers of
this kind in an ifland iituate in the Ligurian fea, which mariners, by
lengthening the Latin name of the fowl, have called Gallinaria (\)\
the African hen, which mod people call the 'Numidian , is like to the
Meleagris (2), except that die bears upon her head a bright-red helmet
and cred, both which are blue in the Meleagris hen.

But,

(x) Gallinaria. Varro fays, that this iflwd is in the Tufcan fea, near the coaft of Italy ,
over-againft the Ligurian mountains lntemiliurn and Album G annum. Some authors fay,
it is rather a rock than an ifland. Columella fays, that thefe ruftic hens were, in their
face, not very unlike the common farm-houfe hens. And Varro fays, that at Rome they
were rare, and feldom feen tame without a cage; that in their face they were not like
the common poultry hens, but like the African hens, of a fair and beautiful afpedfc; and
that commonly they did not breed in the houfe, but in woods. It is not eafy to deter¬
mine by what name thefe ruftic hens are now called: perhaps they might be the breed
cf the common poultry-yard hens carried by mariners to that ifland, where, being left,
they turned wild, as Varro feems to infinuate ; tho’ the feiv.ence is fomewhat oblcure,
and imperfedb.

(2) Meleagrides. Varro, lib. iii. e. 9. fpeaking of African hens, which, according to
our author, were alfo called Numidian , fays, that they were large, various or fpotted, and
crook-back’d ; and that the Greeks called them Meleagridas. But Columella fays exprelsly,
that they were different fowls ; that the African hen was like the Meleagris , except that
fhe carried upon her head a bright-red helmet and creft, which, in the Meleagris , were
both blue. It is ftrange, that Varro and Columella ftiould differ fo much in their defcrip-
tion of thefe two fowls; but either Varro was miftaken, or the lenience is imperfect, or
not rightly pointed. Some authors fay, that the Gallinae Africans or Numidica are what
we call Guiney hens j and that the Meleagrides are what we call Turkey hens. But the
great difficulty is, that the defcription given by Athenaus of the Meleagrides , does not
at all agree to the Turkey hen, which, fome fay, was not known to the antients; and

that

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 341

Bat, of thefe three kinds the common poultry-yard females are
properly called hens ; but the males are called cocks, and the half-males
capons , which have this name given them when they are caft rated,
in order to deftroy their luft. Neverthelefs, they do not fuflfer this
by lofing their genitals, but by having their fpurs burnt with a red-
hot iron ; which, when they are confumed with the force of the fire,
are daubed over with potters-clay, till the fores that have been made
are healed up. Therefore the gain, arifing from this farm or manor-
houfe kind, is not defpicable, if there be a due application of fkill
and knowledge in bringing them up ; which mofl: of the Greeks, and
efpecially the Delians , were very famous for, and made great account
of. But they, becaule they fought for tall bodies, and minds obfti-
nate in battle, and of invincible courage, did chiefly approve the 'Tana-
grian (3) and Rhodian kind; as alfo the Chalcidian and Median ,
which, by the ignorant vulgar, is called Melian. Our own Italian
kind pleafes us mofl. of any : neverthelefs, we have no regard to that
darling inclination of the Greeks , who prepared all the fierceft fowls
they could find, for fighting at their public games. For we give our
opinion, and declare what we think proper for eftablifhing a revenue,
or yearly income, for an induftrious mafter of a family, and not for a
cock-mafter, or a keeper of quarrelfome birds, whole whole patri¬
mony for the mofl: part, which he had laid at flake, and hazarded,
the conquering cock- champion has carried away.

Therefore he who fhall have a mind to follow our directions,
muft confider fir ft of all how many, and what kind, of breeding hens
he ought to provide : fecondly, he ought to confider, after what man¬
ner he ought to manage and feed them; then, at what times of the
year he ought to receive their eggs ; and, afterwards, to make them
fit upon them, and hatch them : laftly, he ought to take great care,
that the chickens be rightly brought up. For by thefe cares, and

that it was firlt bt ought fiom Jlvierica into Europe. It feems difficult to determine by
what modem name they ought to be called. We are told, that they have their name
from Meleager, the Son of Oeneus King of Calydorcia, whole fillers were called Melea-
grides ; and that, being confumed, and much wafted, with mourning for the death of their
brother, the poets feigned, that they were changed into Guiney hens, or whatever elfe is
fignified by that word. The fable is in Ovid, Metamorpb. lib. viii. it any have the cu-
riofr.y to look into it.

(3) Tanagrici Ga/li. Ta7iagra is a city in Eceotia, very remarkable for the courage and
obftinacy of its cocks. Fliny fays, that they made their country famous by their courage.
Varro and feveral other authors mention them with great commendation. Rbodus, an
ifland of the LeJJer jdfia, on the coaft of Carta ; arid Delos , in the JEgean fea ; and
Cha/cis in Euboea, an llland upon the coait of Greece , now called Negropoute ; were all
famous for fighting cocks.

ways

342 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book VIII.

ways of managements, the whole poultry-yard bufinefs, which the
Greeks call oniithetrophia, is tranfadbed and carried on. Two hun¬
dred heads are a fufficient number for employing the whole care of
one perfon to feed them : provided neverthelefs, that either a diligent
old woman, or a boy, be appointed to keep them, and watch over them
when they wander up and down, left they be fnatched away, either
by men who lay wait for them, or be taken in the fnares of infi-
dious animals.

Moreover, it is not expedient to purchafe any fowls but the inoft
fruitful : and let them be of a very red, or a dark-coloured feather,
with black pinions : and, if it can be done, let them be all chofen of
this colour, or of that next to it. If otherwil'e, let the white be
avoided ; which, as they are for the moft part tender, and not very
long-lived, fo fuch of them as are fruitful are not eafily found : and,
being alfo very confpicuous, they are, by reafon of their remarkable
white colour, very frequently fnatched away by hawks and eagles.
Theiefore, let luch of them as are let apart for breeding, be of a
right good colour, of a ftrong body, fquare, large-breafted, with great
heads, ftraight, bright-red and fmall crells, white ears ; and, of
this make and appearance, the largeft that can be found, and not with
an even number of claws : they are reckoned the moft generous which
have five toes, but fo that no crofs-fpurs appear and ftick out upon
their legs : for fhe that bears this mafculine badge, is obftinate and
refradory j and difdains to admit the male ; and is feldom fruitful:
and alfo, when fhe fitteth upon her eggs, fhe breaks them with the
lharp points of her claws.

It is not expedient to keep any cocks for hens, but fuch as are ex¬
ceeding falacious ; and in thefe alfo, the fame colour as in the females,
and the fame number of claws, but a loftier make and ftature, is re¬
quired : lofty crefts, of a bloody colour, and not crooked, or (landing
awry yellow- red eyes, or tending fomewhat to black: fhort and
crooked bills ; exceeding great and very white ears : rattles from a
bright-red tending to white, which hang down like grey beards : then
manes of various colours, or yellow, fomewhat varying from a gold
colour, diffufed all over their necks to their fhoulders : then broad
and mufculous breads, and brawny wings like arms ; alfo very long
tails, bending with a double row of large feathers (licking out on each
fide ; as alfo vaft thighs, covered all over with thick briftly feathers,
all (landing on end ; robuft legs, but not long, armed, as it were,
with mifchievous fpears, in order to hurt. But their manners and
natural temper, tho’ they are not prepared and trained up for- the
2 battle.

Chap. II. • O/HUSBANDRY. 343

battle, nor for obtaining the prize, neverthelefs fuch as are generous
are mod approved ■, that they be elate, chearfiil, watchful, and ready
to crow often, not fuch as are eafily frightened for fometimes they
ought to refill and protedl their conjugal flock ; yea, even kill a fer-
pent, when he rears his threatening head, or any other noxious ani¬
mal : for fuch males as thefe they provide five females each. For of
the Rhodian, and Median kind, becaufe of their heavinefs, neither are
the fathers very falacious, nor the mothers fruitful ; neverthelefs,
they match three of them with one hufband. And when they have
laid a few eggs, they are flothful and backward to fit upon them, and
much more to hatch them ; and feldom bring up their young ones.
Therefore they who love to have thefe kinds in their pofleflion, by
reafon of the beautiful make of their bodies, when they have got the
eggs of fuch as are of a generous excellent breed, put them under
common, ordinary hens j and, when the chickens are hatched, they
are brought up hy them. The ‘ Tanagrian , being for the mod part
equal in fize to the Rhodian and Median , are not much different in
their manners from thofe of our own country, as alio the Chalci -
dian .

Neverthelefs, of all thefe kinds, the baftard chickens are the bed,
which our own Italian hens have brought forth, having conceived
them by foreign males : for, they both retain their beautiful paternal
fhape, and their native falacioufnefs and fruitfulnefs. I do not too
much approve of dwarf fowls ; neither on account of their fruitful¬
nefs, nor for any other advantage they may bring, unlefs their very low
dature is pleafing to any one : nor, indeed, do I like a male that is given
to fighting, or whofe amours make him quarrelfome ; for, for the mod
part, he torments and vexes the other males, and will not fuffer the
females to couple with them, tho’ he himfelf is not able to content
many of them : therefore his faucinefs mud be checked with apiece
of leather, fuch as they make bottles of ; which, when it is made
into a fmall globular form, you cut it in the middle, and put the cock’s
feet into it, through that part which you have cut ; and by this fhackle,
as it were, his fierce and favage manners will be kept within due
bounds. But, as I propofed, I fliall now give directions relating to
the care and management of the whole kind in general.

CHAP.

344

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

CHAP. III.

Of the ?ight Contrivance and Making of an Hen-houfe,

HEN-houfes ought to be placed in that part of the manor-houfe
which looks to the fun-rifing in winter ; let them be contiguous
either to the oven, or to the kitchen, that the fmoak may reach the
place where the fowl roofts, it contributing very much to the
health of this kind ei’pecially. The whole building defigned for the
hen-houfe, is to confift of three cells, built clofe to one another ; of
which, as I faid, the front, being all in one continued line, is to be
turned towards the eaft : then in this front let there be only one fmall
entry made into the middle cell ■, which itfelf ought to be the lowed; of
the three, and feven feet every way : in this muft be made one fingle
entry to each of the other cells in the right and left wall j and both
entries mud be joined to the wall that is oppofite to fuch as come in.
But to this wall let there he an hearth applied, or a place for making
a fire, of fuch a length, that it may be no hop or hindrance to the
forefaid paflages, and that the fmoak may come from it into both
cells ; and let thefe have twelve feet both in length and in height,
but no more breadth than the middle cell. Let their height be di¬
vided with lofts, which may have above them four, and below them
feven feet, free from any incumbrance, becaufe the lofts themfelves
take up one foot. Both lofts ought to be for the accommodation of
the hens ; and they ought to be illuminated by fmall windows from
the eaft, one for each cell 3 which fame windows may afford a paflage
for the fowls to go out by in the morning into the poultry-yard, as
alfo an entry into the cells in the evening. But care muft be taken,
that they be always fhut at nights, that the fowls may remain there
in greater fafety.

Below the lofts let greater windows be opened, and let them be
fortified and fecured with grates or crofs-bars, that noxious animals
may not be able to creep in ; neverthelefs, in fuch a manner, that
the places may be throughly well lighted, that they may dwell the
more conveniently : and the Poultry-keeper ought from time to time
to fearch and watch for the eggs of thofe that are laying, and to con-
fider the condition of thofe that the Hens are fitting upon ; for,
even in thofe places themfelves, it is proper to build the walls fo thick,
that they may admit of nefts cut out in rows for the hens j in which

they

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 345

they may either lay their eggs, or hatch their chickens ; for this is
both wholfomer and neater, than that which fome do, who drive
flakes with great force into the walls, and place wicker-bafkets upon
them. But whether you make hollow places in the walls for them,
as I faid before, or place wicker-bafkets for them, there mull be
porches placed before them, by w'hich the breeding hens may come
to their nefls, either in order to lay their eggs, or to brood ; for they
ought not to fly into the nefls themfelves, left, when they leap into
them, they break their eggs with th^ir feet. Then there is an afcend-
ing-place made for the fowls to go up into the lofts through both
cells, by joining fmall planks to the wall, which are made a little
rugged by forming fteps in them, that they may not be flippery when
they fly to them. But let fmall ladders likewife be applied to the
forefaid little windows from the poultry-yard, on the outfide, by
which the fowls may creep in to take their night’s reft.

But, above all things, we muft take care, that both thefe and the
other aviaries, of which we fhall prefently fpeak, be well fmoothed
with plaifter, both in the inftde and without, that neither cats nor
fnakes may have accefs to the fowls, and other equally hurtful pefts
may be hindered to enter. It is not proper, that the fowl fhould lit
upon the loft when it fleeps, left it be hurt with its own dung, which
gives them the gout in their feet, when it flicks to their crooked toes.
That this deftrudive evil may be avoided, you muft rough-hew poles,
and cut them fquare, left, when they are round and fmooth, they do
not receive and give a faft hold to the fowl when it leaps upon them.
Then you fallen the poles which you have made fquare, in the two
oppolite walls, where you have made holes for them, fo that they may
be diftant the fpace of one foot in height from the loft, and of two
feet in breadth from one another. This lhall be the difpofition of the
hen-houfe for the poultry-yard.

But let the poultry-yard itfelf, through which they ftraggle, be not
fo free from dung as from moifture ; for it is of great importance,
that there be no water in it, except in one place, which they may
drink of, and that muft be exceeding clean : for water which has dung
in it gives them the pip : neverthelefs you cannot keep it clean, unlels
it be put clofe up in veffels made for that purpofe. There are leaden
troughs, which are found by experience to be more ufeful, than either
thofe made of wood, or of potters earth • and you may fill them
either with water or food. Thefe are Ihut up by putting covers upon
them, and have fmall holes made in their fides above the middle part
of their height, at the diftance of an hand- breadth the one from the

Y y other,

34-6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

other, fo that they may admit the heads of the fowls : for, unlefs
they be fecured with covers, whatever quantity of water or food is in
them, is fweeped out with their feet. There are fome who make
holes in the upper-part in the covers themfelves, which ought not to
be done ; for the fowl, leaping up upon it, fouls both its water and its
.food with its excrements.

CHAP. IV.

Of Food proper for Hens .

THE beft victuals given to hens are bruifed barley and tares, as
alio the chichling, and millet or panic : but thefe are given
only when the low price of corn permits it ; but where corn is dearer,
the fmall liftings and refufe of wheat are very convenient food for
them : for it does not turn to any advantage to give them that corn by
itfelf, even in thofe places where it is cheapeft, becaufe it is hurtful
to the fowls. Boiled darnel alfo may be thrown before them ; brawn
likewife, from which the meal is not intirely lifted 5 which, if it has
no meal in it, is not proper for them : nor have the fowls fo great
appetite for it. When they are fading, the leaves and feeds alfo of
the cytifus , (fhrub-trefoil) are very much approved, and very ac¬
ceptable to this kind of fowl : nor is there any country where there
may not be even the greateft plenty of this little tree. Hulks and
kernels of grapes, tho’ they are tolerable food for them, ought not to
be given them, except at fuch times of the year when the fowl is not
laying her eggs ; for they make them lay very feldom, and make
their eggs very fmall. But when, after autumn, they wholly ceafe
from laying, they may be fuftained with this kind of food. Never-
thelefs, whatever kind of food you lhall give them, while they are
wandering up and down the poultry-yard, it mult be diltributed to
them twice ; when the day begins, and when it is declining towards
the evening ; that in the morning they may not prefently wander at
loo great a diftance from their lodging, and may, in hopes and expect¬
ation of their food, return in better time to the hen-rooll in the
evening ; and that the number of their heads may be more frequently
reckoned up : for your volatile cattle eafily deceive the watchfulnefs
and obfervation of their feeder.

Dry

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 347

Dry duff alfo, and afhes, mufl: be placed hard by the walls, where-
ever a porch or houfe thelters the hen-houfe, that the fowls may have
wherewithal to fprinkle themfelves ; for with thefe tilings they clean
their feathers, and their pinions, if fo be we give credit to Heraclitus
the Ephefian , who fays, that fwine are wafhed with mire and dirt, and
poultry-yard fowls with dull or allies. The hen ought to be let out
after the firff, and fhut up before the eleventh hour of the day. This
thall be the way of managing her that wanders up and down, as I
have already defcribed it : nor is that of her, which is fhut up in the
houfe, different from it ; except, that fhe is not allowed to go abroad,
but is fed thrice a day within the aviary, with a greater quantity of
food : for four cyathi of food is the daily allowance of each head,
when only three or two are given to fuch as wander up and down.
A hen alfo that is fhut up, mufl have a large porch, where fhe may
go forth and bafk herfelf ; and let it be fecured and defended with
nets, left an hawk, or an eagle, fly into it : which expences and cares
it is not expedient to beftow, except in fuch places where thefe things
bear a very high price. But, with refpedt to all cattle in general, and
this alfo in particular, the chief and principal thing is, the fidelity of
the Keeper j which unlefs he preferves to his matter inviolate , no
gain or advantage of the aviary will furmount the expences. There
has been enough faid of the way of managing and keeping them : we
fhall now profecute in order what we further propofed.

CHAP. V.

Of preferving the Eggs , and Jetting them under the Hens .

WHEN the middle of winter is paft, this kind of fowls, for
the mofl part, is wont to breed ; and fuch of them as are the
moft fruitful, in warmer climates, begin to lay their eggs about the
firft of Jatiuary ; but in cold countries, they begin after the fifteenth
of the fame month: but their fruitfulnefs mufl; be drawn out with
proper food, that they may bring forth the fooner. Parboiled barley
is excellent food for them ; and you may give it them to fatiety, for
it makes their eggs of a larger growth, and makes them lay the more
frequently. But this food muff be feafoned, as it were, by throwing
leaves of cytijus , (th rub-trefoil) as alfo the feed of the lame among
it, both which are thought exceedingly to increafe the fruitfulnefs of

Y y 2 fowls.

h8 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

fowls. But let the quantity of food be, as I faid before, two cyathi
of barley to fuch as wander up and down : neverthelefs, fome quan¬
tity of fhrub-trefoil mud; be mixed with itj or, if this cannot be had,

fome millet or tares.

But the Keeper mull take care, that the fowls, when they bring
forth, have their nefls ftrawed with the very cleaned: draw j and that
lie fweep them from time to time, and put other draw, the frefhed:
that can be had, into them : for they are full of deas, and other fuch-
like animals, which the fowl brings with herfelf, when fhe returns to
the fame ned. The Keeper ought to be very adiduous, and to watch
them when they are laying ; which the hens declare they are doing,
by frequent cacklings with a thrill voice, or fhriek intermixed, from
time to time. Therefore he ought to be upon the watch while they
are laying their eggs, and mud prefently go round their neds, that he
may gather up what they have laid, and mark fuch as are laid every
clay, that fo the very frethed may be fet under clucking hens : for
fo do people that live in the country call thofe that have a dedre to
brood j and let the red of the eggs be either laid up, or exchanged
for money.

Moreover, the fredied eggs ( i ) are the mod proper for hatching ;
yet fuch as are dale may be fet, provided they be not above ten

days

(i) P%, in his Natural Hijfory , freaking of eggs, fays, that fome of them are white,
as thofe of pigeons and partridges; iome pale, as thofe of water-fowls ; others diffcin-
guifhed by points or fpots, as thofe of the Meleagrides ; fome of a red colour, as thofe of
pheafants, and fome forts of hawks : that the infide of the eggs of all fowls is of two
colours j that thofe of water- fowls have more of the yellow than of the white; and that
the yellow part is more lucid than that of other fowls ; that thofe of water-fowls are
rc unJ, but thofe of other forts are commonly fharp, and drawing to a point at one
end; and that when they are laid, the roundeft part comes out firft ; that, when they are
firft laid, the fhell is fomewhat foft, but prefently hardens with the air. Horace , it feems,
thought, that thofe of an oblong figure are of a more grateful tafte. Tliny adds, that
the rounder produce the female, and the others the male : that the navel of the egg is
in its top, like a drop, rifing up upon the (hell : that fome fowls gender, and bring forth
dways, except two months in the middle of winter, as common farm-houfe hens; and
that the younger lay more eggs than the elder, but of a fmaller fize; and that, at the dif¬
ferent births, thofe they lay firft and laft are the fmalieft ; and that their fecundity is fo
great, that fome of them have laid fixty eggs at one laying, before they gave over lay¬
ing; fome lay once every day, fome twice, yea fome have fo far exhaufted themfelves,
that they have died with laying: that in the middle of the yolk of all eggs there is, as
it were, a fmall bloody drop, which, fome think, is the heart of the animal ; and are of
opinion, that, in every body, this is the firft thing that is formed. But Arifiotle fays,
that this drop is in the white of the egg, Hifi. animalium , lib. vi. cap. 4. and that this
drop palpitates and moves, as if it were animated: that the body of the animal itfelf is
formed of the white liquor of the egg, and nourifhed by the yellow ; Arifiotle was alfo
of this opinion. But it ieems Hippocrates was of a different opinion; for he fays, that the
Bird is formed of the yellow parr, and nourilhed by the white. But Harvey differs from

them

Chap. V. <9/ HUSBANDRY. 349

days old. But, for the moft part, hens, after they have completely
finifhed their firft birth, are defirous to lit upon their eggs about the
thirteenth day of 'January , which they muft not at all be permitted
to do j becaufe, indeed, the young hens are more ufeful for laying
than for hatching eggs ; and their defire of brooding is checked by
palling a fmall quill through their noftrils : therefore, veteran fowls
muft be chofen for this bulinefs, which have frequently done it
already : and their manners and difpofition efpecially muft be throughly
known, becaufe fome of them are beft for brooding, others of them
bring up the chickens in a better manner after they are hatched ; but
others of them, on the contrary, break and deftroy both their own
eggs, and thofe of others ; and, when any of them is found fo doing,
it will be proper forthwith to put her out of the way.

But the chickens of two or three fowls, being hatched, ought, while
they are yet very young, to be transferred to one of them, which
may be the better nurfe ; but this muft be done the very firft day,
while the dam cannot, becaufe of their likenefs, diftinguilh her own
from thofe of others : neverthelefs, you muft keep to a certain num¬
ber ; for it ought not to be greater than that of thirty heads ; for they
deny, that a greater flock than this can be nurfed by one. They
obferve, that the eggs, which are fet under the hen, be of an un¬
equal number, and not always the fame : for in the firft feafon, that
is, in the month of January , fifteen, and never more, ought to be
fet : in the month of March , nineteen, and not fewer than thefe j
twenty-one in the month of April ; then, during the whole fummer,
the fame number : afterwards any further care about this matter is to
no purpofe j becaufe chickens hatched during the colds, for the mod
part, perilh. Neverthelefs moft people think, that even after the

them both ; and fays, it is both formed of, and nourifhed by, the white, till it grows
hig j fee his Exercitat. 52. Thar, when the chicken grows bigger, the white is turned into
the middie, and the yellow circumfufed : that the 20th day, if the egg be moved, the
voice of the chicken may be heard within the fliell : that from that day its feathers grow
upon it: that it is fo placed in the fliell, that it has its head upon its right foot, and irs
right wing above its head : that the yolk decreafes by little and little : that it is beft the
eggs be fet under the hen within ten days after they are laid, becaufe fuch as are fet
fooner or later are unfruitful: that the 4th day after they arc fer, if you take them in
your hand, and look to the top of them againft the light, if the colour be pure and pel¬
lucid, and of one fort, they are barren, and others are to be put in their place; or, if
they float upon water, they are empty, and others that fink are to be put in their
room: that they ought not to be fhaken, becaufe it confounds the vital veins: that they
ought to be fet after the new moon, becaufe otherwife they will not hatch : that in warm
weather they hatch fooner than in cold ; therefore in fummer they bring forth their young
the 19th day, and in winter the 25th. What Ftiny fays further, is molUy contained in
our author.

fummer

350 L, }. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

dimmer foldice, it is not a good time for hatching of chickens ; be-
caufe from that time, although they are eafily brought up, yet they
never come to their juft growth. But in places that lie near the city,
where chickens from their dams are fold at no fmall prices, and
where they do not perifli for the moil; part, the bringing them up ill
the fummer-time is to be approved.

But, when eggs are fet, care ought always to be taken, that it be
done when the moon is increafing, from the tenth to the fifteenth j
for both the letting of the eggs itfelf, almoft during thefe days, is
mod convenient, and turns to mod advantage j and matters mud be
fo managed, that the moon may be upon the increafe again, when the
chickens are hatched. One-and-twenty days are requilite for animat¬
ing the eggs of this kind of common poultry-hens ; but a little more
than twenty- feven for the peacock and goofe-kind : which if, at any
time, it be found necelfary to fet under common poultry-hens, we
mud fird differ them to fit ten days upon the eggs of thofe fowls of
a different fpecies ; then they diall receive four eggs of their own
kind to hatch, and never more than five ; and thefe mud be of the
larged fize ; for of very fmall eggs fmall birds are hatched : then, if
any one (hall defire, that mod males be hatched, he mud fet all the
longed and the diarped eggs ; and on the other hand, if he have a
mind for females, he mud fet the rounded he can find.

But the ufual manner of fetting eggs under hens, delivered to ,us
by thofe who manage thefe things with greater ceremony and fuper-
ffition, is fuch as this: Fil'd, they choole the mod retired neds they
can find, that the brooding hens may not be difquieted by other
fowls : then they clean them carefully before they put draw unto
them, and throughly purify the draw they are going to lay under
them, with fulphur, bitumen, and a burning torch j and, after they
have expiated it, they throw it into their beds, and fo make hollow
neds for them, led, when they fly into them, or leap out of them,
the eggs be rolled out, and fall down. Very many people alfo lay a
little grafs, or fmall branches of laurel, under the draw, in their neds 5
as alfo heads of garlick with iron nails : all which things are believed
to be remedies or prefervatives againd thunders, whereby the eggs are
fpoiled, and the half-formed chickens are dedroyed before they are
perfected in all their parts. But he that fets the eggs obferves, not to
lay them into the ned in order with his hand, one by one j but puts
their whole number together into a fmall wooden tray, and then pours'
them all out gently into the ned prepared for them. But food mud
be placed hard by fuch hens as are brooding, that fo when they have

their

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 3Si

their belly full, they may with more eagernefs continue in their nefts,
and not cool their eggs by wandering at too great a difiance from
them ; and although they themfelves turn them with their feet, yet
the Keeper of the poultry, when the dams leap down from their
nefts, ought to go round, and turn the eggs with his hand, that, re¬
ceiving the heat equally, they may be eafily animated ; and alfo, that,
if any of them be hurt or broken with their claws, he may remove
them. And when he has done this, let him obferve, upon the nine¬
teenth day, whether any of the chickens have, with their little bills,
broke through the eggs, and let him liften if they peep or chirp ; for
oft-times they cannot break out, becaul'e of the thicknefs of the
fhells : therefore with his hand he mull; take out the chickens that
ftick in the fhell, and put them under their dam, that fhe may cherifti
and keep them warm : and he muft not do that longer than three
days ; for, after the one-and-twentieth day, eggs that are filent have
no living creatures in them : and thefe muft be removed, that the
hen, not having been able to hatch them, may not, with vain hope,
be detained longer brooding to no purpofe.

You muft not take away the chickens one by one as they are
hatched, but you muft fuller them to ftay one day in the neft with
their dam ; and keep them from food and water till they be all hatched.
The next day, when the whole brood is hatched, they are brought
down from the neji in this manner : let the chickens be placed either
upon a tare- or a darnel-fieve, which has been already in ufe ; then let
them be fumigated with fprigs of penny-royal. This thing feems to
prevent their having the pip, which very fpeedily kills them when
they are very young. After thefe things, they muft be fhut up with
their mother in a coop, and moderately fed with barley-meal, or with
the fine flour of wheat-meal fprinkled with wine j for crudity is
moft to be avoided : and for this reafon they muft be kept in the
coop the third day with their dam ; and, before they are let out to
their frefh victuals, they muft be tried one by one, if they have any
thing of yefterday’s food in their gorge : for if their crop is not empty,
it is a fign of indigeftion; and they ought to be kept from food till
they have digefted.

But, while they are very young, they muft not be allowed to wan¬
der and ftraggle at too great a diftance, but be kept about the coop,
and fed with barley-meal till they gather ftrength : and you muft take
care, that they be not blown upon by ferpents, the fmell or breath
of which is fo peftilential, that it intirely kills them all. This is
prevented by burning harts-horn frequently, or galbanum, or womens

hair ;

352 L,J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

hair ; by the burning fmell of all which, for the moll: part, the fore-
faid pelf is removed, and kept at a diftance. Bat care alfo mull be taken
to keep them gently warm, for they can neither bear heat nor cold;
and it is beif to keep them {hut up within the hen-houfe with their
dam, and after the fortieth day to give them full liberty to wander
up and down. But the firft days of their infancy, as it were, they
mull be often handled and drefled, and the fmall feathers under their
tails plucked off their buttocks, left they grow hard when they are
bedaubed with their dung, and obftruft their natural paflages. And
tho’ due care is taken to prevent this, neverthelefs it often happens,
that their belly has no paflage : therefore they pierce it through with
a quill, and open a way for the digelfed food.

But now, when the chickens are grown ftronger, care mud be taken
to preferve both them and their dams from that deft rudtive diftemper
the pip ; to prevent which, we mull give them the very pureft water
in the cleaned: velfels ; like wife we mull conftantly fumigate the hen-
houles, and throughly cleanfe them, and free them from dung. But
if, neverthelefs, the plague breaks in, and fpreads itfelf among them,
there are fome who thru ft into their gorge cloves of garlick moiftened
in lukewarm oil. Some wet their mouths with a man’s lukewarm
urine, and comprefs them fo long, till the faltnefs of the urine forces
them to prefs out the naufeous phlegm through their noftrils. The
berry all'o, which the Greeks call dypict <ra<jWui, (wild grape) mixed
with their meat, is of great benefit to them ; or the fame bruifed,
and given them with water for their drink. And thefe remedies are
applied to fuch of them, as are not infefted with the diftemper to
any great degree : for if the pip furrounds their eyes, and the fowl
refufes its victuals, they lance their cheeks, and fqueeze out all the
corrupt matter that is gathered under their eyes ; and fo they fprinkle
a little bruifed fait upon the wounds.

Moreover, this difeafe arifes chiefly when the fowls are much
pinched with cold, and in diftrefs with want of food ; alfo when they
drink the {landing water in the poultry-yards during the fummer :
alfo when they allow them figs and unripe grapes, but not their
belly-full of them, from which kind of food fowls ought carefully to
be kept. And the wild grape, gathered out of the thickets before
they are ripe, will effe&ually make them loath it, when, after they
are boiled with fmall flour of wheat-meal, they are thrown before
them when they are hungry ; for the fowls, being offended with their
tafte, defpife all grapes whatfoever. The wild fig produces the fame

effect

Chap. VI. O/HUSBANDRY. 3S3

effedt alfo; which they boil, and give to the fowls with their meat,
and fo it creates a loathing of figs.

Let the cuftom, which is commonly obferved with refpedt to other
cattle, of picking out all the bell, and felling the worft, be obferved
alfo in this kind, that every year, in the autumn, when their fruit
ceafes, their number alfo may be diminifhed. But we mud remove
out of the way thofe that are old, that is, which exceed three years
of age ; alfo fuch as are not very fruitful, or but very indifferent
nurfes ; and efpecially fuch as deftroy either their own eggs, or thofe
of others : nor mud we be lefs careful to remove fuch of them as
have begun to crow, or to tread alfo, as the males do ; lateward
chickens alfo, which, being hatched after the folfiice, cannot arrive at
their due growth.

But the fame method mud not be obferved with refpedt to the
males j but we will keep fuch of them as are generous, as long as
they can impregnate the female : for it is a rare thing to find among
thefe fowls one that will prove a good hufband. At the fame time
alfo, when the fowls ceafe to breed, that is, from the thirteenth of
November , their more coftly food muft be withdrawn from them,
and hufks and kernels of grapes muft be given them, which are a
food convenient enough for them, when the refufe and liftings of the
wheat are fometimes added to them.

CHAP. VI.

°f EiSs-

THE keeping and preferving of eggs for a longer time alfo. Is
not foreign to this care : they are kept in very good order during
the winter, if you cover them over and over with chaff, or corn-
ftraw j and in fummer with bran. Some cover them all over firft
with bruifed fait for fix hours, and then waff them, and fo lay them
deep in ftraw, chaff, or bran : fome lay them in a heap of unbroken
beans ; others in beans that are bruifed : fome cover them with un-
bruifed fait ; others harden them in lukewarm brine. But all manner
of fait, as it does not fuffer the eggs to rot, fo it diminiffes them, and
does not let them continue full ; which thing deters the buyer. There¬
fore even they who put them into brine, do not preferve them found
and intire.

Z z

CHAP.

35+

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

CHAP. VII.

Of fattening , and cramming of Hens.

ALthough it is the bu fine fs of a Poulterer, and not of an Huf-
bandman, to fatten an hen alfo j neverthelefs, becaufe there is
no great difficulty nor charges in doing it, I thought it proper to give
directions concerning it. An exceeding warm place, and of very little
light, is requifite for this purpofe j wherein the fowls may be fhut
up, one by one, in very narrow coops, or in hanging balkets j but fo
heightened, that they may not be able to turn themfelves. But let
them have holes on both fides ; one where they may put out their
head at ; and another where they may put out their tail and buttocks,
that they may be able both to take their meat, and, when it is di-
gefted, fo to throw it out, as they may not be bedawbed with their
dung. But let the very cleaned: corn-ftraw be fpread under them, or
foft hay, that is, hay of the fecond crop j for, if they lie hard, they
do not eafily grow fat. Let all their feathers be plucked clean off
their heads, from under their wings, and off their buttocks : there,
that they may not breed lice ; and here, that they may not with their
dung ulcerate the natural paffages of their body.

But they give them barley-meal for their food j of which, when
they have fprinkled it with water, and kneaded it, they make pellets,
and fatten the fowls therewith. But thefe ought to be given more
fparingly the firft days, till they be accuffomed to digeft a greater
quantity ; for indigeftion is efpecially to be avoided ; and as much muff
be given them as they can digeft : nor muft frefh victuals be fet be¬
fore them till you feel their crop, and it appear, that nothing of their
old food remains therein. Then, when the fowl has filled its belly,
they put down the coop a little, and let it go out, but fo that it may
not wander up and down, but rather that it may purfue, with its
bill, whatever pricks or bites it. This is almoft the common care of
thofe who cram fowls in order to fatten them.

But they who are defirous not only to make their fowls fat, but
alfo tender, lprinkle that kind of meal before-mentioned with frefh
mead, and fo cram them. Some mix one part good wine with three
parts water, and with wheat-bread foaked therein ftitten the fowl j
which, beginning to be fattened with the new Moon, (for this alfo
muft be obferved) grows plump, and is throughly fattened on the

twentieth

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 355

twentieth day : But if it loaths its food, you muff diminifh it as many
days as are pad fince you began to cram them • yet fo, as the whole
time of fattening them, may not go beyond the twenty-fifth day of
the Moon. But it is bed, and what one ought always to propofe to
himfelf, to dedinate all the larged fowls for the more fumptuous en¬
tertainments j for fo a worthy and fuitable reward follows their pains
and expences.

CHAP. VIII.

Of cramming of TVood-pigeons, or Ring-doves, or tame Pigeons,
that breed in little Cells about the Houfe \ and of making
Pigeon- houfes,

BY this fame method you may make wood-pigeons, or ring¬
doves, and tame pigeons, that keep in little cells about the houfe,
exceeding fat ; neverthelefs, there is not fo great an income redound¬
ing from cramming pigeons, as from bringing them up : for the having
of thefe things alfo in poffedion, is not unfuitable to, or unbecoming
the care of, a good Hufbandman. But this kind is fed with lefs care
and attendance in didant regions, where the fowls have a free egrefs
allowed them j becaufe they frequent the feats afligned them either
upon the tops of towers, or on the highed edifices, where the windows
dand wide open, by which they fly out to feek their food. Never¬
thelefs, for three or four months they willingly accept of food laid
up in dore for them ; the red of the months they feed themfelves
with feeds they gather in the fields. But this they cannot do in places
contiguous to the city, becaufe they are intercepted by various fnares
and traps of fowlers : therefore they ought to be lhut up, and fed in
the houfe j but neither in a place of the manor-houfe that is even
with the ground, or in one that is cold ; but a loft mud be made for
them in an high place, which may look to the Sun at noon in winter.

And that we may not repeat thofe things that have been already
faid, let the walls thereof, as we diredled in the aviary, be made hol¬
low with neds all in a line, one after another ; or, if there be no con-
veniency to make it fo, let boards be put upon fmall dakes driven
into the wall, which may receive either fmall lockers wherein the
fowls may make their neds, or earthen pots for them to breed in,

Z z 2 with

356 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

with porches placed before them, by which they may come to their
nefts. But the whole place, and the pigeon-cells themfelves, ought
to be polilhed with white plafter, becaule this kind of fowl is ex¬
ceedingly delighted with this colour. Likewife the outfide of the
walls ought to be fmoothed, efpecially about the window j and let
that be fo placed, that it may admit the Sun the greater part of the
winter-day. And let it have a large-enough gallery or balcony joined
to it, fecured with nets, which may keep out hawks, and receive the
pigeons which come out to balk themfelves j and likewife afford a
paflage to go out into the fields, for fuch of the breeding pigeons as
are brooding either upon their eggs, or young ones, left, being dilheart-
ened, as it were, with the grievous fervitude of perpetual imprifon-
ment, they grow old : for, after they have flown a little about the
buildings, they are exhilarated and refrelhed, and return more lively and
brilk to their young ones, for whofe fake they do not indeed endea¬
vour to rove up and down to any great diftance, nor to fly away.

The velfels, wherein water is given them, ought to be like thofe
ufed in poultry-yards or hen-coops, which may only admit the necks
of thofe that drink ; and, becaufe of their narrownefs, not receive
thofe that defire to wafh themfelves : for their doing this is neither
expedient for their eggs, nor their young ones, on which they for the
moft part fit brooding. Moreover, it will be proper to fcatter their
food hard by the wall, becaufe thofe parts of the pigeon-houfe are
almoft free from dung. Tares, or bitter vetches, are reckoned the
moft convenient food for them ; as alfo fmall lentils, millet and dar¬
nel, and the refufe and fiftings of wheat; and if there be any other
forts of pulfe wherewith hens alfo are nourifhed.

But the place ought to be fwept and cleaned from time to time ;
for how much the more garnilhed it is, fo much the more chearful
and brilk the fowl appears ; and it is fo fqueamifh, that frequently,
abhorring its own places of abode, it abandons them, if it have liberty
to fly away ; which often happens in thofe regions where they have
free egrefs. To prevent this, there is an antient precept of Demo¬
critus : there is a kind of hawk, which people that live in the coun¬
try call a kejtrel , which commonly makes its neft in buildings ; this
hawk’s young ones are Ihut up one by one in earthen pots, and the
covers are put upon them while they are yet breathing, and the vef-
fels, being covered with plafter, are hung up in the corners of the
pigeon-houfe ; which thing does fo conciliate the love of the fowls to
the place, that they never abandon it. Such of the females as are
neither old, nor too young, muft be chofen for bringing up young

2 ones

Chap. VIII. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 3S7

ones ; but they muft be of the largeft bodies : but care muft be taken,
if it can be done, that the young pigeons be never feparated, but kept
together in the manner they were hatched : for, if they be married
after this manner, they for the moft part bring up more young ones j
if otherwife, let not fuch at leaft as are of another kind be joined to¬
gether, as the Alexandrian, and the Campanian j for they have lefs
love for their mates that are not like themfelves, and therefore they
do not couple much with them, nor do they often breed.

The fame colour of feathers is not always, nor by all, approved j
therefore, which may be the bed: it is not eafy to tell : the white,
which is commonly feen every-where, is not too much commended
by fome: neverthelefs, it ought not to be avoided in thofe that are
fhut up in a clofe place ; for, in fuch as wander up and down, it is
principally to be difliked, becaufe the hawk efpies it very eafily.

But their fecundity, tho’ it be much lefs than that of hens, never¬
thelefs, it brings ia a greater gain : for, if a pigeon be a good breeder,
fhe brings up young ones eight times in a year, and with their prices
the owners fill their coffers, as Marcus Varro (i), an excellent au¬
thor, allures us j who has told us, that even in thofe feverer times
in which he lived, fingle pairs ufed to be fold for one thoufand
fefterces each. For I am afhamed of our own age, if we will be¬
lieve, that there are fome to be found, who pay four thoufand nummi
for a couple of birds (2) ; although I think even thefe more fuffer-
able, who put their delights, and darling amufements, in the balance
with great fums of money, merely for the fake of having them in
their pofleflion, than thofe who empty the river Phajis in Po?itus (3),

and

(1) M. Varro, lib. iii. 7. fays, that there is nothing more fruitful than doves: for in
40 days they conceive, lay their eggs, hatch, and bring up their young ; and that they do
this almoft the whole year, only they intermit from the winter folftice to the vernal equi¬
nox ; that they who fattened them, in order to fell them at an higher price, lhut them
up as foon as they were covered with feathers, and crammed them with chewed bread j
and in fummer they fed them three times a day, in the morning, at noon, and in the
evening j but in winter, twice only. And of fome of them, when their pinions begin
to grow, they break the legs, and leave them in their nefts, throwing food to their
dams, who feed their young all the day long,- that fuch of them as are thus fed grow
fooner far, and are whiter than others ; and that the old ones, if they were beautiful, and
of a good colour, and good breeders, were fold at Rome for 200 nummi a pair, which
in Englifh make 1 /. 12 s. 3^ } ; and fuch of them as were more beautiful than ordinary,
fold for 1000 nummi, in Englifl} money 8/. is. 5 d. i. And that fome refufed to take
lefs than 400 denarii, in Evgliflj money 12/. i8x. 4 d.

(2) Our author fays, that he was afhamed of the age he lived in, if it could be be¬
lieved, that there were fome who paid 4000 nummi for two birds, (1 fuppofe of that
kind) in Evgtijb money 32/. 5 s. 10 d.

(3) Thaff) a famous river of Colchis in Tontus , much celebrated by the expedition of

the

;58 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

and the Scythian lakes of Mceotis (4), of all their fowls ; and who even
at this time, in their drunkennefs, belch out and vomit up fowls
brought from the Ganges (5), and from Egypt.

Neverthelefs, in this aviary alfo may be carried on the bulinefs of
fattening fowls : for if there be any among them that happen to be
barren, or of a fordid difagreeable colour, they are crammed after
the fame manner as hens are. But young pigeons grow more ealily
fat under their dams, if, when they are grown fomewhat ftrong, be¬
fore they begin to fly a little, you take away a few quills from them,
and bruife their legs, that they may reft in one place j and if you give
plenty of food to thole that have hatched them, wherewith they may
the more abundantly nourilh both themfelves and them. Some tie up
their legs gently, becaufe, if they be broken, they think that they
fufter great pain, and thereby become lean : but that thing contributes
nothing at all to their fatnefs ; for, while they endeavour to get rid
of their bonds, they never reft ; and by this conftant exercife, as it
were, they add nothing to their body. Their broken legs give them
pain not above two, or three days at moft ; and they deprive them
of all hopes of going abroad, and of wandering up and down.

CHAP. IX.

Of the bringing up of Turtle-doves .

THE bringing up of turtle-doves is of no advantage, becaufe
that kind neither lays eggs, nor hatches, in an aviary j they
are deftinated for cramming, fo as they are taken from the flight :
therefore they are fattened with lefs trouble and care than other fowls,
but not at all times. During the winter, tho’ pains be bellowed upon

the Argonauta : from this river, they fay, pheafants have their name ; either becaufe
they abound moft there, and aflemble in great numbers at the mouth of that river, to
gather their food t or were firft brought from thence by the Argonauta , as Martial fays,
lib. xiii. Epigram 72. in whofe days it was reckoned a great luxury to feaft on
pheafants.

(4) Maotidis Jlagna Seythica ; by Pliny called la cut Maotius , and palus Maotis. It
lies between the Leffer Tartary or Tartaria Procopenfis , and CircaJJia , a country of Afia.
It is a large gulph, or rather a fea : it is called a lake, becaufe it is fo lhallow in many
places, thac larger veffels cannot fail in it. It is joined to the Euxine fea by the Bos¬
porus Cimmerius ; the river Tanais runs into it.

(5) Ganges , a very great river in India , which runs through the dominions of the
Great Mogul, and empties itfelf into the gulph of Bengal.

them,

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY. 359

them, it is difficult to fatten them 5 and yet then the price of turtles is
lower, becaufe there is then greater plenty of thrulhes. Again, in
fummer they grow fat, even of their own accord, provided they have
abundance of food : for there is nothing more to be done, but to
throw their food before them, but efpecially millet j not becaufe they
fatten lefs with wheat, or other forts of corn, but becaufe they are
moll delighted with millet-feed. Neverthelels, in winter, pellets of
bread foaked in wine fatten them, as alfo wood-pigeons, more quickly
than other forts of food.

They do not make lockers, or fmall hollow cells, for receptacles
for them, as they do for tame pigeons 5 but brackets fattened into the
wall, all in a line, receive fmall hempen mats, with nets fpread be¬
fore them, whereby they may be hindered to fly 3 becaufe, if they
do this, they impair their bodies. And, in thefe receptacles, they
are continually fed with millet or wheat : but thefe feeds mull not be
given them, except they be dry. And half a modius of this food,
for every day, will abundantly fatisfy one hundred and twenty turtle¬
doves : and frefh water, and the cleaned that can be had, is given
them in fmall veflels, fuch as they ufe for hens and pigeons. And
their little mats mud be cleaned, led their dung burn their feet,
which itfelf ought alfo to be carefully laid up for the culture of lands,
and of trees ; as alfo that of all other fowls, except of thofe that
fwim. This fowl is not fo fit for fattening when it is old, as when
it is very young : therefore about the time of harved, now when the
young brood is grown drong, they are chofen for this purpofe.

CHAP. X.

Of the bringing up of Thrufljes.

GREATER pains and expences are bedowed upon thruffics,
which, indeed, are fed in every country-place, but more whol-
fomely in that wherein they are taken ; for they are with difficulty
removed into another country, becaufe they defpond, and lofe heart,
when they are fhut up in cages ; which they alfo do, when, the fame
moment they are taken out of the net, they are thrown into aviaries :
therefore, that this may not happen, l'ome that are old ought to be
mixed with them 3 which, being bred up and nouriihed by the Fowler
for this ufe, may, as it were, footh and cajole the prifoners, and

mitigate

360 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

mitigate their forrow by flying up and down amongft them. They
require a place equally fecure, and as much expofed to the Sun, as
doves do : but in it you muft faften tranfverfe poles, and fit them to
holes made in the oppofite walls, upon which they may rooft when
they have a mind to reft, after they have filled their bellies. Thefe
poles ought not to be raifed higher from the earth, than a man’s
fiature may allow, that he may be able to touch them when he
hands.

Their food is commonly placed in thofe parts of the aviary, which
have not poles over them, that it may be kept the cleaner : but dry
figs, carefully bruifed and well mixed with fine flour, ought always
to be given them, and, indeed, fo largely, that fome part may re¬
main. Some chew them, and fo throw them before them j but it
is fcarcely expedient to do this, where there is a great number of
them, becaufe they who chew them are not hired for a fmall matter;
and they themfelves always confume fome part of them, becaufe of
their fweetnefs. Many think, that a variety of food ought to be
given them, left they loath one fort ; and that is, when the feeds of
the myrtle- and maftich-trees, wild olive, and ivy-berries alfo, and
thofe of the ftrawberry-tree, are thrown before them j for commonly,
in the open fields alfo, this fort of wild fowl likes and feeks after thefe
things, which wipe off and remove the naufeating of fuch of them
as fit loitering in the aviaries, and makes the whole volary more greedy
and voracious, which is a very great advantage ; for with a larger
quantity of food they fooner grow fat. Neverthelefs, you muft alfo
always place by them fmall troughs filled with millet, which is their
firmed: and moft folid food ; for thefe things, which we have men¬
tioned above, are given them by way of dainties.

Let not the veflels, wherein frelli and clean water may be given
them, be unlike thofe made ufe of for hens. Marcus 'Terentius in¬
forms us, that, in our grandfathers times, by this expence and care,
thefe birds were frequently bought for three denarii each (i), with
which they who triumphed made entertainments for the people. But
now the luxury of our age has made this to be their ordinary price every
day ; for which reafons, indeed, this income muft not be defpifed and
let at nought by Hulbandmen. We have already treated of thofe
kinds which are provided with food within the precindts of the manor-
houfe j now we muft fpeak of thofe, which have liberty alfo to go
out to gather their food in the open fields.

(i) Varro , lib. iii. cap. z. Three denarii, in EngliJlj Money, make is. ii%d.

CHAP.

Chap. XI.

Of HUSBANDRY.

361

CHAP. XI.

Of the Bringing up of ‘Peacocks .

TH E education of peacocks requires rather the care of a gentle
Houdiolder, who dwells in a city, than of a crabbed, furly
Rudic ; but neither is this foreign to the buflnefs of an Hufband-
man, who is always endeavouring to procure to himfelf pleafures from
all fldes, wherewith all the folitudes and irkfomenefs of the country
may be foftened and allayed : for the beauty and comelinefs of thefe
birds not only gives delight to their owners, but alfo to Grangers.
Therefore, this kind of fowl is very eafily kept in fmall woody iflands,
fuch as lie up and down the coaft of Italy. For becaufe it can neither
fly high, nor over any great fpace of ground, as alfo becaufe there is
no fear of the rapine of thieves, or of noxious beads, it wanders up
and down fafely without a Keeper, and acquires for itfelf the greated
part of its nouridament. The females indeed, as if they were dis¬
charged from bondage, bring up their young ones, of their own ac¬
cord, with greater care. Nor ought he that has the care of them to
do any other thing, but, by giving a flgnal at a certain time of the
day, to call together the whole flock near the manor-houfe, and to
throw a little barley before them, when they come together, that the
fowls may not be hungry j and that he may review them, and count
the number of thofe that come to the place.

But it is rare to have the conveniency of a pofleflion of this kind :
wherefore, in inland countries, greater care mud be taken of them ;
and let them be managed in this manner : you mud inclofe, with an
high fence or wall, a piece of even, grafly, and woody land, to the
three fides of which you mud apply porticos, and, on the fourth flde,
two cells, that one of them may be an habitation for their Keeper,
and the other, a fhelter or lodging-place for the peacocks : then, under
the porticos, you mud make inclofures with reeds, all in a row, in
the manner of cages or coops, fuch as they place upon the roofs of
pigeon-houfes j thefe inclofures are didinguifhed, or fefarated fretn
o^e another , by reeds running between them like bars, fo that they
may have one Angle entry on both fides. But their lodging-place
ought to be intirely free from moidure, in the floor of which mud
be fadened fliort lmall dakes, all in a row, the uppermod parts of
which mud. have tenons cut very fmooth, which may be put into

A a a holes

?62 L. J. M, COLUMELLA Book VIII.

holes made in tranfverfe poles. Moreover thefe poles, which are
placed upon the fmall hakes, ought to be fquare, that they may re¬
ceive the fowl, when it leaps upon them. But they are made fo as to
be taken away 3 that, when it is necefiary, they may be taken down
from the pods, and give free accefs to thofe who fweep the peacock-
hou fe.

This kind of fowl, when full three years old, breeds exceeding
well ; whereas their more tender age is either barren, or not very
fruitful. The peacock has the lalacioufnefs of a common poultry-
cock, and therefore requires five females 3 for if he frequently treads
one or two of them that are laying, he mars their eggs, fcarcely as
yet formed in their wombs, and does not fuffer them to be brought
to the birth, becaufe they fall from their genital parts before they
come to maturity.

In the latter end of winter, the amorous defires of both fexes muft
be kindled with food provocative of luft. It contributes exceedingly
to this matter, if you parch beans gently in embers that are not too
hot, and give them lukewarm to them failing every fifth day :
neverthelefs, you muft not exceed the quantity of fix cyathi to each
fowl. Thefe victuals muft not be fcattered promifcuoufly to them all 3
but they muft be laid in each of the inclofures, which, I propofed,
ought to be woven with reeds, obferving a proportion of five females
and one male 5 water alfo, which is fit for drinking, muft be fet for
them ; when this is done, the males are conducted, without quarrel¬
ling, into their feveral inclofures with their females, and the whole
flock is fed equally. For alfo, of this kind, there are found males
given to quarrelling and fighting, who hinder thofe that are not fo
ftrong as themfelves both from their food, and from coition, unlefs
they are feparated, and kept apart, in this manner. But commonly,
in places expofed to the fun, the defire of coition difquiets and tor¬
ments the males, when the gentle weft winds have begun to blow,
that is, the time from the thirteenth of February before the month
of March. It is a fign, that his luft is ftimulated, when he covers
himfelf with the pinions of his tail, which glifter as if they were fet
with precious flones, as if he were admiring himfelf 3 and, when he
does that, he is faid to wheel, or be in his pride.

Prefently after the time of coupling, the pea-hens, that are breed¬
ing, muft be carefully watched, that they may not lay their eggs in
any other place, but in their ftalls, where they lodge 3 and you muft
often, with your fingers, feel the parts of the females 3 for their eggs
are very obvious to the touch, when their time of laying them draws

near.

Chap. XI. Of HUSBANDRY. 3 63

near. Therefore fuch of them as are near the time of their laying
muft be fhut up, left they lay their eggs without their inclofures : and
efpecially at thofe times when they are going to lay, the aviary muft
be well filled with a great quantity of ftraw, that their eggs may be
preferved, and received found and intire. For commonly, when the
pea-hens are come to take their night’s reft, they lay their eggs when
they are fitting upon the foremen tioned poles ; and the nearer and
fofter they fall, the lefs injury are they liable to receive, and the
founder are they kept.

Therefore, during the times of their laying, you muft daily, in the
morning, go round the places where they rooft, and gather the eggs
that are lying there; and the frefher they are fet under common
poultry-hens, fo much the more commodioufly are they hatched : and
it is moft for the Houfholder’s advantage, that this fihould be done.
For pea-hens, which do not fit upon their eggs to hatch them, for
the moft part, lay eggs thrice in a year : but fuch of them as fit upon
and hatch their own eggs, confume the whole time of their fecun¬
dity either in hatching, or in bringing up, their young ones.

Their firft birth or laying is, for the moft part, of five eggs ; their
fecond of four ; their third either of three or two : nor is there any
pretence for being guilty of fuch a miftake, as to let Rhodian hens fit
upon pea-hens eggs, which do not, indeed, rightly nurfe and bring
up their own offspring. But, let all the largeft veteran hens, of our
own Italian breed, be chofen ; and let them fit on nine eggs, nine
days from the firft increafe of the moon ; and let five of them be
pea-hens eggs, and the reft of the common poultryddnd. Then,
upon the tenth day, let all the common poultry-hens eggs be taken
away, and as many frefh ones, of the fame kind, put in their place,
that they may be hatched with the pea-hen’s eggs on the thirtieth
day of the moon, which is almoft new moon.

But let it not efcape the care of the Keeper, to obferve when the
hen that is brooding leaps down, and to come frequently to her neft,
and turn the pea-hen’s eggs with his hand, which, by reafon of their
bignefs, are more difficultly moved by the hen ; and, that he may do
this the more carefully, one fide of the eggs muft be marked with
ink, which the keeper of the aviary fhall have as a fign to know
whether they have been turned by the hen, or no. But, as I faid be¬
fore, we muft remember, that the largeft common poultry-hens be
prepared for that purpofe ; which, if they be of a middling fize,
ought not to be put to fit on more than three pea-hen’s eggs, and fix
of her own kind : then, after fhe has hatched the young ones, thofe

A a a 2 of

364 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

of the common poultry-kind ought to be transferred to another nurfe j
and thofe of the peacock-kind, which fhall be hatched from time to
time, gathered to one nurfe, till a flock, confifting of twenty-five
heads, be made up.

But, when the young ones are hatched, in like manner as the
chickens of the common poultry-kind, let them not be removed the
firfl: day : the next day let them be transferred into a coop, with their
nurfe that is to educate them ; and the firfl: days let them be nourifhed
with barley-meal befprinkled with wine, as alfo with boiled pottage
or gruel of any kind of corn, and cooled. Then, after a few days,
to this food muft be added cTarenti?iian leek, cut very fmall, and foft
cheefe, out of which the whey has been fqueezed with great force ;
for itus manifeft, that whey is hurtful to the pullets. Locufts alfo,
when their feet are taken from them, are reckoned ufeful for nourifh-
ing thofe little ones ; and they ought to be fed with them till the
fixth month : afterwards it is fufficient to give them barley by hand.

But after the thirty-fifth day that they are hatched, they may be
fafely enough led out into the fields, and the flock follows the cluck¬
ing hen, as if ihe were their mother. She is fhut up in a cage, and
carried out to the fields by their Feeder j and the hen being let out, is
fecured with a long line tied to her foot, and the young ones fly up
and down round her : and, when they are fed to fatiety, they are
brought back to the manor-houfe, following, as I faid, the duckings
of their nurfe. But authors are well enough agreed, that other hens,
which bring up chickens of their own kind, ought not to be fed in
the fame place ; for, after they have feen the peacock-offspring, they
ceafe to love their own chickens, and leave them before they are
grown up, hating them indeed, becaufe they are not equal to the
peacock either in bignefs, or in beauty. The fame difeafes, which
ufe to hurt the common poultry-kind, infeft thefe fowls : but no
other remedies are given them, than thofe which are applied to the
common poultry-kind ; for the pip and crudities, and if there are
any other pefts, are checked by the fame remedies which we have
already propofed. Then, when they are above feven months old,
they ought to be fhut up in the aviary with the reft, to take their
night’s reft. But care muft be taken, that they do not abide upon
the ground ; for fuch of them as ufe to lie down fo, ought to be taken
up, and placed upon the poles, left they fuffer by the cold.

CHAP.

Chap. XIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

36S

CHAP. XII.

Of the Bringing up of Numidian and Ruflic Hens.

TH E way of bringing up Numidian hens, is almoft the fame
with that of peacocks. But wild or wood hens, which are
called ruftic, do not breed when in bondage : and therefore we give
no directions concerning them, but that food be given them to fatiety,
that they may be the fitter for feafts, and delicate entertainments.

CHAP. XIII.

Of Fowls which the Greeks call d^cpiCicc, (amphibious) and
the Latins, duplicis vitae [of a double Life).

I Come now to thofe fowls which the Greeks call d^cpiGicty {amphi¬
bious) becaufe they not only feek for food upon the dry land, but
in the water alfo : and they accuftom themfelves not more to the dry
ground, than to the lake. Of this kind the goofe efpecially is accept¬
able to people that live in the country ; becaufe it does not require
tbe greateft attendance and care, and keeps a better watch than a dog :
for, by their cackling, they difcover him that lies in wait to furprife
you, as hiftory alfo has informed us, in the fiege of the Capitol,
when, at the arrival of the Gauls , they made a loud noife, when the
dogs were filent.

But this fowl cannot be kept every-where, as Celfus judges very
truly, who thus fpeaks : The goofe is not eafily fuftained either with¬
out water, or without much grafs nor is it profitable in fuch places
as are town or planted, becaufe it plucks whatever tender or young
thing it can reach} but, where-ever there is a- river, ora lake, and plenty
of grafs, as alfo corn-fields hard-by, there this kind of fowl mu ft be
nourilhed. This we alfo advife you to do } not becaufe it is of any
great fruit or advantage, but becaufe it is of very little burden or trouble :
neverthelefs, out of itfelf it both produces gofiings, and yields feathers j
which you mult not gather as you do wool from your fheep, only
once a year, but you may pluck them twice a year, in the fpring
and autumn j and, indeed, for thefe reafons, if the condition of the

366 L. J.M.COLUMELLA Book VIIL

place will allow it, you mu ft bring up a few at leaft, and to each
male affign three females ; for, becaufe of their heavinefs, they can¬
not couple with more. As alfo you muft make goofe-pens for them
in retired corners, within the poultry-yard, that they may be pro¬
tected and fheltered, and lodge, and lie down, and lay their eggs,
and hatch them, therein.

CHAP. XIV.

Of the Bringing up of Geefe , and making a Goofe-pen for

keeprng and feeding them*

LE T thofe, who are deftrous to have flocks of fwimming fowls
in their pofteflion, conftitute proper places for feeding and keep¬
ing them, which then will turn to account, and anfwer expectation,
if they be duly ordered in fuch a manner as this : A large yard is in-
clofed, remote from all other cattle, furrounded with a wall nine feet
high, and with porticos, fo that the Keeper’s cell may be in one part
of it ; then under the porticos are built fquare goofe-pens, with rub-
bifh, or any rough materials for building, or with fmall bricks alfo j
it is lufficient, that each of them have three feet every way, and each
of them an entry, fecured with ftrong little doors j becaufe they
ought to be carefully {hut up during the time they are laying their
eggs, and hatching. Then, if, without the manor-houfe, not far from
the building, there be a pond or pool of {landing water, or a river,
let no other water be fought for; if not, let a lake or pond be made
by hand, that they may be fuch as the fowls can dive in : for they
can no more live conveniently without this fhelter and defence, than
they can do without that upon dry land.

Let marfhy land alfo, but fuch as is grafly, be deftinated for them ;
and let other forts of food be fown for them, fuch as tares, trefoil, fenu¬
greek, but efpecially a kind of endive, which the Greeks call ferin (i) ;
the feeds of lettice alfo ought, above all things, to be fown for this
ufe, becaufe it is both an exceeding foft and tender pot-herb, and very

(i) Genus intubi quod Sieiy Graci appellant. In Diifcorides you read it alfo in

the Accufative : he diftinguifhes it into wild and tame. See Matthiolus in DioJ'coridem
his defcription of it, where he mentions the feveral forts, both of the wild and tame ;
and fays, that the wild is the fame with what they call cichorium fylvejlre , and pier in, becaufe
of its bitternefs.

much

Chap. XIV. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 367

much fought after, and much liked, by thefe fowls ; as alfo very
ufeful food for their young ones. When you have prepared all thefe
things, you mull take care, that males and females, of the larged:
bodies, and of a white colour, be chofen : for there is another kind
of divers colours, which, from being wild, is foftened and made tame.
That kind is neither equally fruitful, nor fo valuable j for which
reafon it mull not be brought up at all.

The fitted: time for putting geefe to couple is after the fhorted day
of winter is pad: ; and, afterwards, for laying their eggs, and brooding,
from the calends of February or March till the folltice, which falls
in the latter part of the month of 'June. They couple, not as thofe
other fowls of which we have already fpoken, reding upon the
ground ; for, for the mod: part, they do that in a river, or in ponds :
and each of them lays eggs three times in a year, if they are kept
from hatching their own eggs ; which is more expedient, than when
they themfelves fit upon them in order to hatch them ; for they are
both better nurfed by common hens, and a much greater flock of
them is made up.

But, the fird time of their laying, they lay five eggs ; the fecond,
four j and the lad:, three : which lad: laying fome people allow the
dams themfelves to bring up, becaufe the reft of the year they will
ceafe from laying any more eggs. The females mud: not at all be
allowed to lay their eggs without the inclofure ; but, when they fhall
be feen feeking for a place to fettle in, you mud: flop them, and feel
if they are with egg : for, if the time of their laying approaches, you
may with your finger touch their eggs, which are near the entry of
their genital parts. Wherefore they ought to be brought to their
goofe-pen, and fhut up, that they may lay their eggs : and it is fuf-
ficient to have done this once to each of them, becaufe every one of
them runs again to the fame place where die fird: laid her egg. But,
at the lad: time of their laying, when we have a mind, that they them¬
felves fhould fit on their own eggs, the eggs of every one of them in
particular mud: be marked, that fo they may be put under her that
laid them ; becaufe they deny, that one goofe can hatch the eggs of
another, unlefs die alfo have her own eggs put under her. But five
eggs of this kind, as thofe of the pea-hen, are the moll that are fet
under common hens, and three die fewed : but, under the geefe
themfelves, the fewed are vii, and xv the mod.

But great care mud be taken, that when nettle-roots are laid under
the eggs, by which remedy, as it were, they are cured, they may
not hurt the godings, when they are come out of the diells • for

nettles

368 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII,

nettles kill them, if they prick them when they are very young. But
thirty days are neceflary for forming and hatching the young ones,
when the weather is cold ; for in mild, warm weather xxv days are
fufiicient: but, more frequently, the gofling comes out of the fhell
the thirtieth day. And, while it is very little, it is fhut up and fed
with its dam in the goofe-pen, during the firft ten days : afterwards,
when fair weather permits, it is carried out into the meadows and
ponds ; and care muft be taken, that it be neither pricked with the
prickles of nettles, nor fent out to pafture when it is hungry j but be
fatiated, before it go out, with endive, or lettice-leaves cut in pieces.
For if, while it is as yet not very ftrong, and ftanding in need of
food, it come out to the pafture, it ftruggles fo obftinately with fhrubs,
or the more folid herbs, that it choaks itfelf, or disjoints its neck.
It is right to give it millet alfo, or wheat mixed with water : and,
after it has gathered a little ftrength, it is driven to a flock of goflings
of the fame age with itfelf, and nourifhed with barley : which it is
not improper to give alfo to fuch geefe as are laying eggs, or brooding.

But it is not expedient to aflign more than twenty goflings to each
goofe-pen j nor, on the other hand, muft they be fhut up at all with
fuch as are older than themfelves, becaufe the ftronger kills the
weaker. The cells, wherein they lie, muft be exceeding dry and
they muft have ftraw fpread under them : or, if this cannot be had,
hay alfo is moft acceptable to them. As to the reft, the very fame
things muft be obferved with refpedt to them, as to the young brood
of other kinds of fowls, that neither a ferpent, nor a viper, nor cats,
nor a weafel alfo, may be allowed to breathe upon them ; which pefts
reduce them, while they are very young, almoft to utter deftruftion.
There are fome who fet foaked barley by fuch as are fitting on their
•eggs, and do not fuffer thofe that are brooding to leave their nefts
frequently. Some alfo give them green crefles with water, cut very
fmall j and this is a moft agreeable food to them. Afterwards, when
they are four months old, all the largeft of them are deftinated for
cramming, becaufe their tender age efpecially is reckoned the fitted:
for this purpofe : and thefe fowls are eafily fattened ; for, befides
dried barley-meal foaked in water, and wheat-flour three times a day,
it is not neceflary to give them any other thing, provided they have
liberty to drink abundantly, but are not allowed to wander up and
down, and that they be kept in a warm and dark place : which things
contribute very much to breed fat. In this manner they grow fat in
two months ; and, by fuch management, even the tendered brood is
often brought, in forty days, to be exceeding fat and plump.

CHAP.

Chap. XV. Of HUSBANDRY.

369

CHAP. XV.

Of Ducks, Teals, and the like.

A Place for feeding ducks requires the like care, but greater ex-
pences. For ducks, -teals, pocards, phalerides (i), and fuch-
like fowls, which fearch all the holes and corners of ponds and pools
of {landing water and marfhes, are put under confinement, and fed
in a clofe place. An even, level place is chofen for this purpofe, and
fenced round with a wall fifteen feet high : then it is covered with
grates or crofs-bars placed over it, or with nets with large mafhes,
that neither the fowls within the houfe may have liberty to fly out,
nor eagles and hawks to fly into it.

But this whole wall muft be fmoothed with plafter, both without
and within, that fo neither a cat, nor a ferret, may creep over it.
Then, in the middle part of this duckery, a lake is digged two feet
deep, and as much fpace is afligned to the length and breadth thereof,
as the condition of the place will permit. The edges or fides of the
pool are all laid with Signinian work, (plafter of Paris) left they
be confumed with the violence of the waving and overflowing of
the water, which ought always to flow and be in motion between
them : and they muft not be raifed and formed into Heps, but gra¬
dually fubfide with a gentle defcent, that there may be an eafy delcent
into the water as from a fhore. But the bottom of the pond or pool,
as far almoft as two thirds of the whole dimenflon, muft be ftrongly
paved all round with ftones well driven in, and plafter, that it may
not throw up grafs and weeds, but preferve the furface of the water
pure for fuch fowls as fwim in it.

Moreover, the middle part of it ought to be of earth, that it may
be planted with Egyptian beans, and other green things, which com¬
monly grow in water, which darken, and furnifh a {hade, for tha
places where the fowls retire and {helter themfelves. For there are
fome of them which delight to abide either in little woods of tamarifk-
trees, or in thickets of ftirubs and rulhes : neverthelefs, let not the

(i) Phalerides. P/in. lib. 3. cap. 48. fays, that in Se/ettcia of the Parthians , and in
Afia, thefe are the mod commended of any water-fowls whatfoever. Father Hardouin,
in his note upon this place, fays, that they are frequent in the country about Soiffons and
Beattvois in France. It is a beautiful fowl, which delights in ponds and lakes: but whe¬
ther there is any fuch fowl in England , or by what name it is called, I know not.

B b b whole

370 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

whole place, for this reafon, be taken up with little woods ; but, as
I faid, let it be free and open all round, that the fowls, when a clear,
warm, fun-fhining day makes them leap and fkip for joy, may, with¬
out any hindrance, ftrive together which of them can fwim the
fwifteft. For, as they defire to be where they have holes to creep
into, and where they may lie in ambufh for animals that live in rivers,
and lurk and hide themfelves from them ; fo they are offended, if
there are not free, open fpaces, where they may go freely up and
down.

Then, without the lake, let the banks be covered with grafs for
twenty feet on all fides ; and behind this extent of ground, about the
wall, let there be places for them to lodge in, of a foot fquare, built
with ffone, and lmoothed with plaifler, in which the fowls may
make their neffs ; and let them be covered with box and myrtle-fhrubs
planted among them, which muft not exceed the height of the wall.
Then let a little chanel be built all along, and funk under-ground,
through which their food may daily run down mixed with the
water ; for in this manner does this kind of fowl gather its food.
Terre flrial food alfo of puls, as millet, panic, and barley alfo, is
very acceptable to them : but they alfo give them maff, and hufks,
and kernels of grapes, where there is plenty of them. But, of aqua-
tile food, they give them crab-fifh, if they have them in plenty, or
fmall river pilchards, or anchoves of little value or if there be any
other river animals of a fmall growth.

They obferve the fame times of coupling, in March and the follow¬
ing month, as other wild fowls do ; during which, (talks of herbs,
fprays, and fprigs, muft be fcattered here-and-there in the aviaries,
that the fowls may gather them, and build their nefts therewith.
But it is a very old practice, and exceeding proper, that when one has
a mind to conftitute and(form a duckery, he fhould gather the eggs
of the forefaid fowls about the marfhes, wherein, for the moft part,
they lay them, and breed, and fet them under common poultry-
hens ; for their young ones, being thus hatched and brought up, lay
afide their wild difpofition, and will certainly breed when they are
(hut up in aviaries : for, if you would put into cuftody, and fhut
up, fowls that are newly taken, which have been accuftomed to live
at full liberty, they delay laying their eggs in their fervitude. But
enough has been faid of the tutelage of fwimming fowls.

CHAP.

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY.

37*

CHAP. XVI.

Of Fifh-ponds , and of feeding of Fifes.

BU T, while we are making mention of aquatile animals, we
fhall come opportunely to the care and management of fillies.
For tho’ I think, that the gain, redounding from them, is mod: un-
fuitable and alien to Hufbandmen, (for what can I imagine fo contrary
as terreftrial and fluid, or dry land and water?) neverthelefs, I fhall
not omit it. For our anceftors took great delight in, and applied
themfelves much to, thefe things, even to fuch a degree, that they
fhut up falt-water Allies alfo in frefh waters, and nourifhed the mullet,
and the fcare, with the fame care as the fea-lamprey, or fea-pike, are
now educated. For that antient, ruftic progeny of Romulus and
Numa valued themfelves mightily upon this, and thought it a great
matter, that, if a rural life were compared with a city life, it did
not labour under the want of, or come Ihort in, any part of riches or
wealth whatfoever. Wherefore, they not only ftored the fifh-ponds,
which they themfelves had built, with great numbers of fillies, but
alfo filled the lakes, which nature had formed, with fpawn, or young
fillies, brought from the lea. Hence it was, that the lakes of Re-
lino (i), Bracciano (2), Bolfeno (3), and Vico (4) alfo, did procreate
fea-jacks and gilt-heads j and if there be any other kinds of filhes
which can endure frelh water.

Afterwards the following age abolilhed that care ; and the dain-
tinefs, magnificence, and fumptuoufnefs of the rich, have fhut up
the very feas, and Neptune himfelf alfo ; and now, with the hiflory
of our grandfathers, the action and faying of Marcius Philippus (y)

is

(1) Lacus Velbtus , a lake in Umbria , upon the borders of Sabina in Italy ; it is now
called Lago de Pie di Luco. It lies between Read , a Town in Sabina, and Tarni , a town
in Umbria : the river Velino runs through it.

(2) Lacus Sabatinus , now called the lake of Bracciano , from the adjacent town of
that name.

(3) Lacus Vulfnenfts, or Vulfm'tenfs ; the lake of Bolfeno, in the duchy of Cafro in-
Hetruria in Italy , almoft round, and thirty miles in circumference. It has other names
from the places adjacent, which it is needlefs to trouble the reader with.

(4) Lacus Ciminus , now called Lago di Vico , between Viterbo and Ronciglione. It may
as properly be called the lake of Viterbo , as tuons Ciminus is called the hill of Viterbo.

(5) Marcius Philippus. This ftory our author has taken from Varro , lib. iii. cap. 3.
who fays, Did not Philippus , when he turned aiide to lodge with his friend Immidius at
CaJJinutn , and at fupper had tailed of a beautiful pike, which his friend had fet before

B bb 2 him,.

372 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

13 publifhed every-where, and is in every body’s mouth (as mighty
pleafant and polite, which was, indeed, exceeding luxurious) : for at
a certain time, when he was at fupper in his friend’s houfe, with
whom he lodged, at CaJJinum , and had tailed of a pike, out of the
neighbouring river, which was fet before him, and had fpitten it out,
he followed the impudent and naughty adtion with a jeft. May
I perijh , faid he, if I did not think it was a Jijh ! Therefore, this
falfe oath has put many upon more nice and uncommon contrivances
to gratify their gluttonous appetite, and taught delicate, wife, and
learned palates to loath and make no account of the river-pike, ex¬
cept that which the adverfe ftream of the ' Tiber had wearied. Therefore
cTerentius Varro fays, ‘ That, in this age, there is not a vain, paltry,

4 forry fellow, or a flage-player (6), who will not fay, That it is no
4 matter to him whether his fhh-pond be well flored with this kind
4 of fifh, or with frogs ; and that, in his opinion, there is no dif-
4 ference between them.’ Neverthelefs, in thofe very times, wherein
Varro gives an account of this luxury, Cato’ s feverity was exceedingly
commended, who, notwithflanding, when he himfelf was Lucullus’s
guardian (7), fold his pupil’s filh-ponds for the fum of four hundred
thonhnd Jejiertii. For then the dainties of taverns, and of houfes
of riotous entertainments, were in great vogue, and much fought
after, when fifh-ponds were brought from the fea ; and they who
took great delight in them, and made them their chief fludy, rejoiced,

him, and had fpic it out, fay, May I per ifh, if I did not take it to be afip! Cafjinum,
now called Monte CaJJino. It was antiently a town of the Volfci in Latium, near the bor¬
ders of Campajzia ; now it is in the province of the Terra di Lavoro , in the kingdom
of Naples. It is very uncertain who this Marcius Rhiiippus was ; probably he was one of
the Marcian family, which was very noble and antient, being defcended from Ancus Marcius ,
who was once king of Rome. By Varro’s manner of relating the ftory, it feems to have
happened in his own time. It feems they only valued fuch pikes as were taken in a cer¬
tain place of the river Tiber.

(6) Rhinton. This was probably the name of fome famous a<fcor or buffoon; and
Varro perhaps had in his view, and applied it to, JEfop the ftage-player, who was known
to him ; and whofe extravagant luxury and profufion Pliny, in his natural hifory , and
feverai other authors, take particular notice of, and condemn.

(7) Tutor Luc uiU grandi are fefiertium millium quadringentorum pupilli fui pijc'tnas
’venditabat. Cato-, who perifhed it Utica, was guardian to this Lucullus ; and our author
fays, he fold his filh-ponds for 400000 feftertii, which, in Englifj money, amount only
to 3229/. 3 s. 4 d. But Rliny fays, that they were fold for four millions of feftertii,
which amount, in Englijh money, to 32,291/. 13 s. 4 d. fo that there feems to be an
error in the text of Columella ; for the fum mentioned by Rliny feems much more pro¬
bable, confidering the vaft profufenefs of L. Lucullus , and the great fums he expended
in making fifh-ponds near Naples, and the prevailing humour of the great men at Rome
about that time, who fpared no coft in order to excel in the magnificence of their
villas and fifh-ponds ; fo that Lucullus’s filh-ponds muft have fold for much more than
this fum, as it now ftands in our author.

and

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY. 373

and were glad, to be called by the names of the fifhes they had
catched. So Sergius was called Orata (8) ; and Licinius, Murcena (9);
juft as Scipio was called Numantimis (10), and P. Servilius, Ifauri -
' cus ( 1 1 ), from the nations they had before conquered.

But becaufe the manners of this age are become fo callous, that
thefe things are reckoned not as cuftomary and common amufe-
ments, but as highly commendable and honeft ftudies ; we alfo, left
we ftiould feem to be late cenfurers of fo many ages now paft, ftiall
explain and point out this kind of gain alfo, that a mafter of a family
may make at his villa. Let the man who has purchafed iflands, or
lands contiguous to the fea, and cannot receive any fruits from his
ground, becaufe of the poornefs of the foil, which, for the moft
part, is the cafe near the fea-fhore, raife to himfelf a revenue from
the fea. But it is, as it were, the beginning of this affair, carefully
to view and confider the nature of the place, where you refolve to
make and conftitute your fifh-ponds : for all kinds of fifhes (12) can¬
not be had in all Ihores. A flimy, muddy region educates the flat
filh, as the foal, the turbot, the plaife : the fame alfo is exceeding
proper for conchyls (13)7 burrets, oyfters, and others of the purple

kind :

(8) Sergius Orata, as Pliny fays, lib. ix. 52. was the firft who invented oyfter-bedsij at
Baia near Naples. He was, as fome think, called Aurata , becaufe he delighted much
in a fort of fifh called aurata, which, as Fejlus fays, were of the colour of gold : he
fays, that the common people called orum, what ought properly to be called aurum ,
which is the reafon why he was called orata.

(9) Licinius Mur ana, as Pliny fays, lib. ix. 55. was the firft who invented ponds for
many forts of fifhes ; and from one fort of them, which he delighted moft in, had the
furname of Murana : many of the quality followed his example, as Philippas Hortenfius ,
Lueullus, and others.

(10) Scipio was called Nuwantinus, from his taking Numantium in Spain, after a long
and tedious fiege : but he got nothing but the bare walls ; for the people chofe rather
to burn themfelves, and all that they had, than fubmit to him, and live with the lofs
of their precious liberty.

(11) P. Servilius was called Ifauricus from his conquering Ifauria, a country of Leffer
Afta, on the fouth of Galatia , and bordering upon Pificiia.

(12) It is not eafy to determine by what EngUfJj, or other modern names, feveral of
the fifties, mentioned by our author, ought to be rendered : authors, who have written
upon this fubje£t, are not at all agreed upon this particular ; many of them are not
known in our feas, fo that it cannot be expetfted, that they have any names in our lan¬
guage. Both the Greeks and Rowans called feveral fifties by the names of terreftrial ani¬
mals, and other things to which they thought they bore fome refemblancc, either in
their ftiape, colour, or fome other remarkable quality ; and thefe I have rendered accord¬
ingly : and of others I have retained the original names, as has been often done by others
who have had occalion to mention them.

(13) Conchylia fometimes fignify fmall fhell-fifhes of the purple kind, which yielded
a kind of juice or blood, wherewith they dyed purple. But Pliny frequently makes ufe

of

374- L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

kind: as alfo of the Tcallop kind, the pedhincles (14), and the fea-
acorns (15), or the fphondyli (16): hut landy gulphs afford not very
bad food indeed to flat fifties; but they feed better fuch as are bred
in the deep fea, as gilt-heads, and fea-ruffs, and the Carthaginian ,
and our own Italian ombers or fhade-fifhes ; but they are not fo pro¬
per for conchyls, or fhell-fifhes of the purple kind. Moreover, a
rocky fea nouriflhes very well flflies of its own name, which, doubt-
lefs, are called J'axatile , or rock-fifties, becaufe they harbour and
lodge in rocks, as the merle, the lea-thrufh, and the lea-bream (17).
And it is neceflary to know the differences of feas alfo, as well as of
fhores, left fillies, bred in different feas, deceive us: for all fillies
cannot fubfi ft in every fea, as the helops { 18), which is fed in the
Pamphylian deep, and in no other whatloever : as the dory in the
Atlantic fea, which alfo, in our municipal city of Cadiz , is num¬
bered with the moft generous fifties, and, by antient cuftom, we call
it zens. As the fcarus (ip), or cud-filh, alfo, which, in great num¬
bers.

of the word comkylium to fignify the colour itfelf, and always diftinguifties it from the
beau’iful Tyrian or deep-purple colour, which was fo highly efteemed by the antient
Rowans 3 and, for the moft part, the murex , which fome call a burret , was only ufed
for this valuable colour, and was moft fought after. The conchylium was much paler,
and more diluted, than the purpura , which had abundantly more of the juice or blood
of the fifti than the -other : the matter ufed for both thele colours might be the fame,
but differed in the way of tempering it ; for that for the rich purple was only mixed
with water, whereas the other was mixed with urine, which gave the conchyliatte vejles

a difagreeable fmell, and made them lefs efteemed ; and, according to the mixture, they

had more or lefs of the purple, but all had fomething of a tendency to blue.

(14) Pettunculus , the diminutive of petten, which is a large kind of fcollop. They

have a double fhell chanelled ; and are fo called, becaufe their fhells are chanelled, and
formed in the fafhion of a comb.

(15) Balanus. It is fo called, becaufe it is fhaped like an acorn.

( 16) Sphondylus , or rather fpondylus , as it is in Pliny , a kind of fhell-fifh ; probably fo
called, becaufe it bears fome refemblance to a vertebra of the neck, and is what Athe-
naus calls Tp/‘xy\K<&. Pliny fometimes calls by this name that callous and white part of
an oyftcr, or other fhell-fifties, which flicks to the fhell.

(17) Melanurus. Some call this a bream: it has its name from the blacknefs of its
tail.

(18) He lops. Plin. nat. hijl. lib. xxxii. c. n. makes mention of this fifh from Ovid,
who had feen it in Pontus , and fays, that it was not known in the Mediterranean fea ;
and that many preferred it to all other fifties for its exquiftte tafte.

(19) Scants. Pliny fays, that this is the only fifti that is faid to chew its cud- and
that it feeds on herbs, and not on other fifties; and is very frequent in the Carpathian
fea : that, of its own accord, it never paftes the promontory Leffon of Troas ; but that,
in the reign of Tiberius Claudius , a certain admiral difleminated them on the coaft be¬
tween Ojlium and Campania; and that for five years, when any of them were taken,
they were thrown again into the fea ; and that afterwards there were abundance of them

taken

5

\

Chap. XVII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 375

bers, comes out of the coads of all Afia and Greece as far as Sicily ,
but has never fwum out of them into the Ligurian fea, nor by Gaul
into the Hiberian fea : therefore, fuppofe they were taken and brought
into our Afh-ponds, they could not be long in our podeflion. Ot all
the rare and valuable flfhes, the fea-lamprey alone, tho’ it is originally
a native of the Tarfian fea, and of the Carpathian , which is the utmod
fea, endures a foreign fea, whatever frith it is a gued in. But now we
mud lpeak of the Atuation of fifh-ponds.

CHAP. XVII.

Of the Situation of a Fifj-pond.

WE are of opinion, that that pond is incomparably the bed,
which is fo fituated, that the fucceeding wave of the fea may
remove the former, and not fuffer the old one to remain within the
inclofure : for that pond is the mod like the fea, which, being agi¬
tated by the winds, is continually renewed, and cannot grow warm,
becaufe it condantly revolves the cold wave from the bottom to the
uppermod part'. But this pond is either cut out of a rock, of which
it is very rare to find the conveniency ; or it is built with Signinian
work, or plader of Paris , upon the fea-fhore : but, whatever way
it be built, if it be exceeding cold by the gulph flowing conftantly
into it, it ought to have caves hard by the bottom, fome of them
Angle without windings, and draight, where the fcaly flocks may
retire ; others of them crooked and winding, but not too fpacious, in
which the fea-lampreys may lurk : although fome do not think it
proper, that they fhould be mixed with fifhes of a different fort, be¬
caufe, if they are feized with madnefs, which this kind is liable to,
in the fame manner as dogs are, they perfecute the fcaly fillies mod
cruelly, and devour and eat a great many of them.

And, if the nature of the place will allow it, it is proper that paf-
fages be made for the water on every Ade of the AAi-pond : for the
old water is more eaflly removed, when, by whatever part the wave
preffes, there is an open outlet for it through the oppofite Ade. But

taken upon the coaft of Italy ; fee lib. ix. c. 17. The Carpathian fea, where they abound
moft, has its name from the illand Carpatkus between Crete and Rhodes^ and is one ot
the Sporades.

we

376 L.J.M. COLUMELLA Book VIII.

we are of opinion, that thefe paflages flhould be made along the lower
part of the inclofure, if the Situation of the place will allow it, that
a plumbet, being placed in the bottom of the fifh-pond, may fhew,
that the furface of the fea is feven feet higher j for this meafure of
the depth of the gulph is abundantly fufficient for pond-fiflies : nor
is there any doubt, but, by how much deeper the fea is, which the
water comes from, by fo much the colder it is, which is mod: proper
for fwimming fifties. But if the place, where we advife you to build
the fifh-pond, be upon an equal level with the furface of the fea,
let it be digged to the depth of nine feet ; and below, two feet from
the uppermod part, let a fmall canal be laid all along for a gentle
current of water j and care mud be taken, that it come in very plen¬
tifully, becaufe that quantity of water, which lies below the level of
the fea, is not otherwife fqueezed out, but by a greater force of re¬
cent fea-water rufhing in upon it.

Many think, that, in thefe kinds of ponds, there ought to be built
long places of retirement for the fifhes, and winding caves in the fides
of the fame, that fo they may have the darker lurking places when
they are very hot. But, if recent fea-water does not always pafs
freely through the pond, it would be hurtful to them to do this : for
receptacles of this fort do neither eafily admit new waters, nor emit
the old but with great difficulty ; and rotten water does more hurt,
than the darknefs of thofe places does good. Neverthelefs, there ought
to be like as it were hollow cells made in the walls, for protecting
them when they fly from the heat of the fun j and which, notwith-
danding, may eafily let out the water which they have received : but
it is neceffary to remember, that brazen crofs-bars, or lattices, with
fmall holes, be fadened before the canals through which the water
flows, that the fifhes may be hindered from making their efcape. But,
if the extent of the place will allow it, it will not at all be amifs to
place rocks from the fea-fhore, efpecially fuch as are covered with
fea- weeds, in feveral places of the pond ; and, as much as the wit of
man can contrive, to reprefent the appearance of a real fea, that the
confined may be as little fenfible of their imprifonment as poffible.

Having in this manner prepared dables for the aquatile cattle, we
mud bring them in to them. And, let it be a principal point with
us to remember alfo, in all river-bufinefs, and water-affairs whatfoever,
the direction given relating to what is done upon dry land :

* Confider well what ev’ry place will bear.*

For

Chap. XVII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 377

For we cannot, if we had a mind to it, feed a multitude of barbels
in a fifh-pond, as we have fometimes feen in the fea ; forafmuch as
it is a moft delicate, tender kind of filh, and Suffers bondage with
great indignation j therefore, of many thoufands, rarely one or two
of them endure confinement: but, on the other hand, we frequently
obferve, within inclofures, fhoals of fluggifh fea-mullets, and rapacious
fea-wolves, which commonly breed in the deep fea. Wherefore, as I
propofed, let us confider the quality of our fea-fhore, whether we
avoid rocks, or if we approve of them.

We muft fhut up in our ponds the feveral forts of fea-thrufhes,
merlins, and the greedy fea-weafels j as alfo fea-wolves, or fea-jacks,
that have no fpots, (for there are fome of them of divers colours) as
alfo floating lampreys, which are very much commended ; and if
there be any others of the faxatile or rock character, which bear a
very great price *, for it profiteth nothing indeed to catch, much lefs
to nourifh, fuch as bear a low price : thefe fame kinds alfo may be
kept in ponds upon a fandy fhore : for fuch ponds as grow dirty with
flime and mud, as I faid before, are more proper for conchyls, and
for animals that lie.

Nor is a pond, for the reception of fuch fifhes as lie, to have the
fame pofition : but the fame food is given both to eredt and to pro-
flrate fifties : for, for foals and turbuts, and fuch-like animals, they
fink a pond two feet deep, in that part of the fhore which is never
left deftitute of water by the ebbing of the fea ; then they fallen very
clofe crofs-bars upon the brim or fide of the pond, which may always
appear above water, even when the tide fwells, and rifes to its full
height. Afterwards they call up moles before it, and round the
whole circumference of it, and fo as they may encompafs it, and con¬
tain it in their bofom, and exceed the dimenfions of the pond : for
fo the raging and violence of the fea is broken by the interpofition of
the bank j and the fiih, keeping in a quiet and calm place, is not
difturbed and driven out of its habitations, nor is the pond itfelf filled up
with a heap of fea- weeds, which the raging of the fea throws up in ftormy
weather. But in fome places, the moles muft be cut through in the
manner of a Maander (i), with fmall but flrait narrow paflages,
which may let the fea pals through without a wave, in the moft
ftormy winter- weather whatfoever.

(i) Maunder, a river in Phrygia, which runs through Curia and Ionia, full of various
windings and turnings : hence any place, with many turnings and windings, is called by
that name.

C c c

Here

37 8 L. J. M. € O L U M E L L A Book VIII.

Here the food of fifties, that lie proftrate, ought to be fofter than
that of rock-fifh; for, becaufe they want teeth, they either lick
their victuals, or fwallow them whole; for, indeed, they cannot chew
them : therefore it is proper, that rotten or damaged pilchards fhould
be given them; and fardels confumed with fait, and rotten fardines,
as alfo the gills of J'cares , or whatever entrails the young tunny and
the fea-lizzard have ; as alfo the ventricles of the mackrel, the
carcharus (2), and the diftaff-fifh (3) 3 and, that I may not men¬
tion every thing in particular, all the garbage of falted fifti, which
are fwept out of fiftimongers (hops. But we have mentioned feveral
kinds of them, not becaufe all of them come forth of all fea-fhores,
but that we may give them l'ome of thofe which we fhall have in our
power to give.

Of green fruit of the apple-kind, the fig laid open is very proper
for them ; and nuts alfo, broken with your fingers, muft be given
them • as alfo the foft forb-apple boiled, and fuch victuals as are next
to fuch as are fupable, as new cheefe or curds out of the milk-pail,
if the condition of the place, or the plenty and cheapnefs of the milk,
will permit it. But there is no food that is equally proper and con¬
venient for them, as the forefaid falted provifion taken out of the
brine, becaufe they have’a ftrong fmell : for every fifti that lies, fearches
for, and finds out, its food more with its nofe than with its eyes ;
for, while it conftantly lies upon its back, it looks more aloft, and
does not eafily fee fuch things as are upon a level with itfelf, upon
the right and left : therefore, when falted fifti is thrown to them, they
follow their fmell, and come to their victuals.

But other fifties, that either live among rocks, or in the open fca,
are well enough nouriftied with thefe fait things, but better with fuch
as are frefh : for the fmall pilchard or anchove newly taken, and the
crevice, and the fmall gudgeon, and, in a word, every other fifti that
is of a minute growth, nourifties the greater. Neverthelefs, if, at
any time, the boifteroufnefs of the winter does not fuffer this kind of
food to be given them, either morfels of coarfe bread, or, if there be
any apples of this feafon, they are cut fmall, and given to them.
Indeed the dry fig is always thrown to them, and is excellent, if it
be large, as is that of the regions of Bcetica and Numidia . But that
ought never to be pradtifed which many do, who give them nothing

(2) Carcharus. I do not find this among the many fifties mentioned by Pliny, and
probably this is not the true reading.

(3) Elacata. This fifh has its name from its refembling a diftaff. Pliny calls fifties
of this fort Helacatencs.

Chap. XVII. 0/ HUSBANDRY, 379

at all, becaufe, even when they are (hut up, they can fupport them-
felves for a long while : for, unlefs the fifh is fattened with its own¬
er’s victuals, when it is brought to the filh-markets, its leannefs de¬
clares, that it was not taken in the open fea, but brought out of a
place of confinement ; for which reafon there is a very great abate¬
ment made of the price. And, let this fort of manor-houfe paftur-
ing put an end to this prefent difcourfe, left the reader be wearied
with the immoderate length of the volume. But, in the following
book, we {hall return to the care and management of wild-cattle,
and to the culture of bees.

C C C 2

CHAP.

[ 3«o ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK NINTH.

The PREFACE.

ICome now to the tutelage of wild cattle, and the education of
bees; which very things, Publius Silvinus, I may alfo very juftly
call manor-houfe pafturings : forafmuch as antient cuftom placed parks
for young hares, and wild goats, and fuch-like wild beafts, hard by
the manor-houfe ; for the moft part fituated below the owner’s apart¬
ments, that fo the feeing of them hunted within the inclofure
might both delight the eyes of him who had them in his pofleffion ;
and that they might be brought forth, as it were, out of a flore-
houfe, when he had occafion to make entertainments. And, even in
our own memory, bees had feats afligned them, either in the walls of
the manor-houfe cut into niches, or in porticos fheltered from
the weather, and in orchards. Wherefore, feeing there is a reafon
given of the title, which we have prefixed to this difcourfe, let us
profecute particularly each of the things we have now propofed.

CHAP. I.

Of making Parks , and Jhutting up wild Cattle in them.

WILD cattle, as young roe-bucks, fallow deer, as alfo the feveral
kinds of ounces, and flags, and boars, fometimes ferve for
the magnificence, and fplendor, and pleafures of their owners ; and,

at

Chap. I. L. J. M. COLUMELLA, &c. 381

at other times, to make gain, and increafe their revenue : hut they
who (hut up wild beads, in order to hunt them for their pleafure, are
fatisfied, whatever the fituation of the place next to the dwelling-
houfe may be, with inclofing a park for their cattle, and giving them
always food and water by hand. But they who are defirous of gain,
and of a revenue from them, when there is a wood near to the manor-
houfe, (for it is of great importance, that it be not far from the own¬
er’s eyes) dedinate it for the forefaid animals, without any hefitation :
and, if natural water is wanting, they either bring running water into
it, or dig ponds in it, and lay them with Signinian work, (plader
of Paris) that they may contain the rain-water that they dial! have
received.

There is fuch an extent of wood taken in, as is fuitable to every
man’s edate; and, if the cheapnefs of done and labour give en¬
couragement, without all manner of doubt a wall, made of rough
ftone and lime, is built round it ; if otherwife, it is built with un¬
burnt brick and clay. But, when neither of thefe is for the advan¬
tage of the mader of the family, reafon requires that it fhould be in-
cloled with wooden rails ; for fo a certain kind of bars is called : and
they are made of red-oak, or evergreen-oak, or of the cork-tree ; for
it is rare to have the conveniency of the olive-tree : in a word, what¬
ever is more lading under the injuries of the rains, is chofen for this
ufe, according to the circumdances of the country. And whether it
be the round dock of a tree, or it be cloven into dakes, as the thick-
nefs of it requires, it is bored through the fide in feveral places, and
ere&ed and fadened round the whole circumference of the park, cer¬
tain fpaces intervening between each dake : then crofs-bars are put
through the holes that are made in their ddes, which may diut up all
padages for the wild beads to go out at.

But it is fudicient to faden the pales in the ground, at the didance
of eight feet from one another, and to bind them together fo clofely
with crofs-bars, that the widenefs of the fpaces between the holes
may not give the cattle an opportunity to make their elcape : and, in
this manner, you may inclofe even the broaded countries, and
tradls of mountains, as the vad extent of the countries in Gaul , and
alfo of places in fome other provinces, will bear; for there is both
very great plenty of wood for making pales, and every other thing
necelfary for this purpofe is ready at hand, and can be ealily obtained ;
for the foil abounds in frequent fprings, which is exceeding whol-
fome for the forefaid kinds of wild beads : and it alio furni'dies fo¬
rage for them very liberally of its own accord. And fuch foreds are

382 L.J.M.COLUMELLA Book IX.

chiefly chofen, which abound both in fruits of the ground, and in
fruits of trees ; for as they have need of all forts of grafs, fo likewife
of oak-maft : and thofe forefts are moft commended, which are the
moil fertile of acorns, both of the common- and evergreen- oak, like¬
wife of the cerrus-oak, as alfo of the arbute- or ftrawberry-tree, and
other wild apples, which we carefully treated of, when we difcourfed
of fuch cattle as are kept in yards about the manor-houfe ; for the.
forage of wild cattle is almoft the fame with that of tame.

Neverthelefs, a diligent mafler of a family ought not to be con¬
tented with thofe forts of food, which the earth produces naturally of
its own accord ; but, at fuch times of the year, wherein the woods
want fuftenance for them, he ought to relieve the confined with the
fruits of the earth, which he gathered in harveft, and laid up in his
ftore-houfes, and nourifh them with barley- or wheat-meal, or beans,
and moft of all with hulks, and kernels of grapes; and, in a word,
to give them whatever cofts but very little. And, that the wild hearts
may underftand, that that is laid before them, it will be proper to fend
out among them one or two which have been tamed at home, which,
wandering over the park, may lead the cattle, which ftand boggling,
to the victuals that are thrown before them. And it is expedient, that
this be done, not only during the fcarcity of the winter, but alfo after
fuch as are with young have brought them forth, that they may bring
up their young ones the better : therefore the Park-keeper ought fre¬
quently to be upon the watch, and fee if they have already brought
forth their young, that they may be fuftained with corn given them
by hand. But neither ought the ounce, nor the wild boar, nor any
other of thefe wild hearts, to be fuffered to grow above four years
old ; for till that time they always advance in their growth ; after¬
wards they decay, and grow lean with old age: wherefore, while their
green age preferves the beauty of their body, they muft be exchanged
for money : but a flag can be fuftained for a great many -years ; for
he continues long young in your pofleflion, becaufe he has a life of a
longer duration beftowed upon him.

But, concerning animals of a lefler growth, fuch as the hare, we
give thofe following directions : That, in thofe parks which are fur-
rounded and fecured with a wall, the feeds of barley, and of feveral
other forts of grain, mixt together, and of pot-herbs, wild endive,
and lettice, be thrown into l'mall beds of earth made at various
diftances. Let alfo the Carthaginian chich-peafe, or that of our own
country, as alfo barley and chichlings, that have been laid up in ftore,
be brought forth out of the barn, and moiftened with rain-water,

and

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 3S3

and thrown before them ; for dry things are not too much fought after
by hares. Moreover, it is eafily underflood (fuppofe I fhould be filent)
how improper it is to bring thefe animals, or others like to them,
into that park which is furrounded with rails ; confidering, that, by
reafon of the fmalnefs of their body, they eafily creep under the
bars, and, having gotten open paffages to go out by, they endeavour to
make their efcape.

CHAP. II.

Of Bees .

I Come now to the management of bee-hives, concerning which no
precepts can be given with greater diligence, than have been already
delivered by Hyginus j nor more gracefully and handfomely, than by
Virgil j nor more elegantly, than by Celfus. Hyginus has induflrioufly
collected the fentiments of antient authors, that were difperfed in their
writings, which were unknown to the world. Virgil has illuminated
them with flowers of poetry j Celfus has adapted and made ufe of the man¬
ner of both thefe mentioned authors : wherefore we would not have fo
much as attempted to difcourfe of this fubjedl, but that the confumma-
tion of the profeflion we have undertaken required the handling of this
part of it alfo, left the body of the work, which we have begun,
ihould appear maimed and imperfedt, as if fome member were cut off
from it. And I would rather allow to poetical licence, than to our belief,
thofe things which have been fabuloufly related concerning the origi¬
nation of bees, which Hyginus has not paft over. Nor, indeed, is it
worthy of an Hufbandman, to inquire whether there ever was fuch
a woman as MelijJ'a , of a moft exquifite beauty, which Jupiter tranf-
formed into a bee ; or whether (as Euhemerus the Poet fays) bees were
bred of hornets and the fun, which the Phryxonian nymphs (i) edu¬
cated j and that foon afterwards they became nurfes to Jupiter in the
Hittcean cave (2) ; and, by the free gift of the god, they obtained

(1) Phryxonides nymph*. I have not feen any other antient author, befide Columella ,
that mention thefe nymphs: whether he means by them Amalthea and MeliJJa , daugh¬
ters of Melijfeus , a king of Crete, who, as the fable fays, educated Jupiter, and fed him
with honey, I know not. Perhaps they were fo called, becaufe they were afterwards
made prieftefles to Cyhele by their father and from this Melijpea the fucceeding prieftefles
were, by the antients, called by the fame name.

{2) Ditte, a mountain in Crete, where the Poets lay Jupiter was educated.

I

the

384 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

the fame food for their own fuftenance, wherewith they had brought
up their little fofter-child : for, tho’ thefe things are not unbecoming
a poet, neverthelefs Virgil touched upon them flightly, and very
briefly, only in one fmall verfe : In Di&e’i cave they fed the king of
heavn.

But neither does that indeed belong to Hufbandmen j when, and
in what country, they were firfl: produced, whether in HheJJaly under
Arijlceui (3) j or in the ifland of Cea (4), as Euhemerus writes (f) j
or in the times of Erichthonius (6), in mount Hymettus (7), as Eu-
thronius (8) ; or in the times of Saturn of Crete, as Nicander fays (9),
no more, than whether the fwarms procreate their offspring by cou¬
pling together, as we fee other animals do j or choofe the heir of their
family from among the flowers, which our Maro affirms j and whe¬
ther they vomit the liquid honey out of their mouth, or yield it from
any other part of their body ; for it rather belongs to the fearchers
into the fecret and hidden things of nature, than to Hufbandmen, to
inquire after thefe and fuch-like things. Alfo thefe things are more
agreeable to men of ft udy and learning, who have leifure to read, than
to Hufbandmen, who are full of bufinefs ; becaufe they neither affift
them in their work, nor contribute any thing to increale their effate.

(3) AriJIieus, a king of Thejffaly , the inventor of honey, as Virgil, lib. iv. /. 283.

(4) Cea or Ceos, an ifland in the JEgean fea; one of the Cyclades.

(5) Euhemerus, an ancient Greek writer of MeJJina in Sicily : he wrote the hiflory of
the heathen gods, their death, burial, &c. Ennius tranflated him into Latin, and fol-
lowed his opinion of them. Tullius , de nat. deorum , lib. i. makes mention of him ; and
feems to think, that the account he gave of them took away all pretence for worfhipping
them.

(6) Erichthonius : fome make him a king of Athens. Plin. hifl. nat. lib. vii. c. 56.
mentions him as the inventor of filver, and the firfl that made ufe of a chariot and four.
Perhaps he may be different from another of that name, who was fon of Dardanus the
firfl king of Troas.

(7) Hymettus , a famous mountain in Attica , where they fiy is the beft honey, and
where it was firfl found out.

(8) Euthronius. Perhaps this is the fame as Euphronius, whom both Varro and Colu¬
mella mention as a ruftic writer.

(9) Nicander was of Colophon, a city of Ionia in the Lejfer Afia : he was both a poet,
a phyiician, and an excellent grammarian : his Theriaca and Alexipharmaca are ftill ex¬
tant. Several of his writings are mentioned by Suidas ; amongft other things he wrote
of Husbandry, which Tally commends very much for its poetry, lib. i. de Oratore
Athenians alfo mentions feveral of his works. He lived in the times of Attains, the laft.
king of Pergamus.

CHAP.

Chap. III.

Of HUSBANDRY.

385

CHAP. III.

Of the feveral Kinds of Bees , and which of them is the heft,

X X 7 Herefore let ns return to thofe things which are more proper
VV f°r them who have bee-hives under their care and manage¬
ment. Arijiotle , the founder of the Peripatetic feft, in thofe books
which he wrote of animals, thews, that there are feveral kinds of
bees, or of fwarms of bees ; and that fome of thofe fwarms have
bees that are exceeding large, but round and compadt, and the fame
black and fhaggy ; others lefler indeed, but equally round, and of a
dufky colour, with horrid griily hair j and others of a fmaller fize,
but not lo round, but neverthelefs fat, and broad, and of a fomewhat
better colour : and they have fome that are very fmall and flender,
with the trunk of their belly fharp, and drawing to a point, of divers
colours, fomewhat fhining like gold, light and nimble. And Virgily
following his authority, approves moft of fuch as are very fmall,
oblong, fmooth and nimble, bright and Alining (1) :

* Whofe bodies, mark’d with pairs of fpots like drops

* Of liquid gold, a dazling luftre caft

Of gentle and mild difpofitions ; for by how much the greater, and
rounder alfo, the bee is, by fo much the worfe it is : but if it be of
a more fierce and cruel temper, it is by much the worft of all. But,
neverthelefs, the angry difpofition of bees of a better character is
eafily mitigated and foftened by the continual intervention of thofe who
take care of the bee-hives ; for they grow quickly tame when they
are often handled, and endure for ten years, if they are carefully ma¬
naged : nor can any fwarm of bees exceed this age, although they
yearly fubftitute young ones in the room of thofe that are dead ; for,
in the tenth year, almoft the whole family, that lives together in one
hive, is confumed, and reduced to utter deftrudtion. Therefore, left
that lliould be the cafe of the whole apiary, a new race muft be con-
ftantly propagated ; and, in the fpring, you muft carefully obferve
when the new fwarms iffue forth in great numbers, that they may be
received, and the number of their dwelling-houfes increafed : for they
are often feized with difeafes. After what manner the fame muft be
cured, (hall be declared in its proper place.

(1) Virg. Gcerg. lib. iv. 98,

Ddd

CHAP.

386 L, J.M, COLUMELLA Book IX.

CHAP. IV.

Bees, and what
ought to have .

IN the mean while, having made choice of bees according to the
marks we have now mentioned, you ought to deftinate proper
places for them to gather their food ; and let them be the moft retired
that can be had • and, as our Maro directs, void of cattle, and in fuch
a fituation as is expofed to the Sun, and Iheltered from flormy wea¬
ther ( i ) j

‘ Where winds have no accefs ; for winds impede
* Their courfe, when with their food they’re homeward-bound,

‘ Where neither Sheep, nor frifking kids, infult
c The flow rs ; nor heifers, rambling o’er the fields,

* Shake off the dew, and crufh the rifling herb/

Let the fame quarter alfo be abundantly productive of fmall fhrubs,
and efpecially of thyme, or baftard marjoram (2), as alfo of thymbra,
or Greek favory, or our own Italian favory, which the country-
people call fatureia : after thefe, let there be abundance of flirubs of
a greater growth, as rofemary, and the cytifus or fhrub-trefoil (3), of

vi) Virg. Georg. lib. iv. 9.

(2) Origanum , baftard-marjoram ; fo called, becaufe it delights in mountains.

(3) Cytifus. We fee here, that our author places the cytijus among the fhrubs. Pliny
alfo, Hift. Nat. lib. xiii. c. 23. calls it a fhrub. It is mightily commended by many
anticnt authors, as good for fheep, fwine, hens, &c. and they fpeak of it as a mighty
common thing in Italy in their days ; fo that it is ftrange, that writers are not agreed
about it. Both Columella and Pliny fpeak of it, as if it were Town or planted, grew up,
and were cut down, like trefoil. Pliny fays, it may be Town in feed, or planted in
ftalks ; and if any would exprefs the likenefs of it, it is angufi ioris trifolii frutex , has
leaves like trefoil, but leffer: and Diofcorides fays, KvTtff<& Sd.y.v®' \tiv, i.e. a fhrub or
bufii. Pliny fays it was found in the ifland Cythifus , from thence translated into all the
Cyclad illands, and foon afterwards into all parts of Greece. It feems, it was not very
plentiful in Italy in Pliny’s time; for he fays, that, confidering the ufefulnefs of it, he
wonders that it is fo rare. All writers upon Husbandry celebrate it much, which makes
it feem ftrange, that it has not been more cultivated, or, at leaft, that it is not better
known. The account that Columella and Pliny give of this fhrub, does not very well
agree with what our writers fay of it. Pliny, as has been already faid, among other
things, fays, that it may either be fown in feed at the time they fow barley, or fet in
ftalks or flips (caule) in autumn before winter; that it comes to perfection in three
years, and is cut down about the equinox; that it is of an hoary afped:, and fo hardy,
that it fears neither heat nor cold, hail nor fnow.

Of the Baft tires proper for

the fame

Sort of Situation

both

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDR Y. 387

both forts : for there is one fort of it that is fown or planted, and
another fort which grows of its own accord. And, likewife, the
ever-green pine, and the letter ever-green oak ; for the taller one is
difapproved by all : ivy-trees alfo are received, not for their goodnefs,
but becaufe they yield very much honey. But, the mod approved
trees are, the bright-red and white jujube-tree, likewife the ama¬
ranth (4), as alfo walnut-trees, peach-trees, and pear-trees ; in a
word, the greateft part of pomiferous trees, that I may not infill upon
each of them. But, of forell or wild trees, the mod fuitable and
convenient for them are the mad-bearing red oaks, as alfo the tur¬
pentine-tree, and the madich-tree, which is not unlike to this, and
the fweet-fmelling cedar : but of all, the lime- or linden-trees alone
are hurtful to them; yew-trees are intirely rejected. Moreover, a
thoufand plants, which either fpring up and flourifh upon the uncul¬
tivated turf, or are cultivated and improved with the furrow, produce
flowers exceeding friendly to bees ; as are the Ihrubs of the amellus (5)

in

(4) Amaranthus. The amaranth , fo called, becaufe its flower does not foon wither,
but keeps the beauty of its colour a long while. Some authors call it flower-gentle , and
the amaranthus maximus they call great flor amour , or purple flower-gesitle : but fome
authors think, that it ought not to be read amaranthus , but tamarix , becaufe the author
is here fpeaking of trees, and not of herbs ; and the tamarix , when it flourifhes, is very
proper for bees.

(5) Amelli frutex. There is fome difpute about this herb ; Matthiolus thinks that it
is the after Atticus, the Italian ftarwort, becaufe Virgil's beautiful defcription, Georg,
lib. iv. fhews, that it has certain characters which belong to the afler Atticus ; and
that the words in Virgil, ipfe aureus , ought to be underftood of the flower itfelf ; and
the following words, fed in foliis quae plurma circum flunduntur, viola flublucet pur¬
pura nigra, are to be underltood of the leaves that furround the flower itfelf, which
fomewhat referable the black violet in their colour : therefore he fays flublucet purpura ,
becaufe that purple colour, which is Teen in thefe leaves, is not fo bright as in the violet
itfelf, bu: much more diluted ; fo that it is a great miftake to think, that Virgil under¬
ftood this colour to be that of the leaves of the herb. Moreover Virgil , in effecft, fays,
that the flower of this herb is found in the end of fummer, or beginning of autumn,
tonfis in vallibus , in the mown valleys, it growing up after the hay Is cut down. The
defcription he gives of the amellus is this : 4 It is an herb that fends forth from its
< root ftraighr, folid, and woody ftalks, of a dark, yellowifh colour, from which, about
C the top, fpring forth fmall little branches, on the top of which are feen flowers radiated
4 after the manner of a ftar ; in the middle they are yellowilh, all furrounded with little
4 leaves, fhining with a diluted purple colour; it bears leaves acuminated like thofe of
4 the olive-tree, but fmaller, rough, hairy, blackifh, of a rough-bitteriih tafte; thofe
4 that furround the ftalk are by much the fmalleft : it has a multifidous fibrous root, of
4 no unpleafant fmell, fomething like that of gilliflowers. It blofloms or flouriflies in
4 the end of fummer, or beginning of autumn, in Augufl and September ; the leaves
4 grow at length flaccid, and dilVolve into down, with a fmall oblong feed, notwery
4 unlike endive : it grows in rough uncultivated hills and valleys.’ I have tranferibed
this out of Matthiolus , becaufe I have not found it under this name in any of our beft

D d d 2 Engliflh

388 L. J. M, COLUMELLA Book IX-

in well-watered ground, branke-urfine-ftalks, the thank of the afpho -
del or king’s-tpear (6), the fword-like leaves of the daffodil (7). But
the white lilies, planted in the garden-ridge, make a bright appear¬
ance ; nor are the white violets or ftock-gilliflowers inferior to thefe
in beauty; alfo fcarlet rofes, and yellowith and purple violets (8) ;
and like wife the fky-coloured hyacinth (9) ; alfo the Corycian ( 10) and
Sicilian laffron-bulb is planted, in order to give a colour and flavour
to the honey. Moreover, innumerable herbs of a bafer character
fpring up, both in cultivated- and in pafture-lands, which furnifh and
replenifh the honey-combs with abundance of wax ; as the lapfance ,
or common wild cole worts (1 1) ; and, which is not more precious

than

Englijb books of herbs. Columella , cap. 13. fays, there is a fort of it with a yellowifh
ftalk, and purple flower.

(6) Afphodeli fcapus , by Pliny called bacillus regius, or baflnla regia , king’s-fpear, be-
caufe, when it is in the flower, ic refembles a royal fceptre. Some French authors call it
hache royale : it has a round and very fmooth ftalk, which rifes a cubit high, fometimes
two cubits. Columella calls the ftalk of it fcapus , becaufe it refembles the ihank or fhafc
of a column.

(7) NarciJJus , daffodil. Probably fo called from v*<>k h, torpor ; the fmell of it is ftupe-
fying, and caufes an heavinefs of the head : its leaves, which arife from its root, are
fhaped like a fword, which is the reafon why our author fays gladiolus narcijji. There
are many different forts of it, which Mr. Miller , in his Di&ionary, gives us an exaift
defcription of : and Matthiolus has given us cuts of the different forts, whofe leaves have
all the fhape of a fword, fome broader, fome narrower : perhaps the bees fuck honey
out of the leaves and flowers.

(8) Sarrana viola;-, purple violets. Sarranus , the purple colour, either from farra ,
the name of the fhell-fifh, with whofe blood they dyed this colour; or from Sor, the He¬
brew name of Tyre and Sidon. Sarranee veftes , in many authors, fignify cloaths of a
purple colour. Some fay, that formerly Tyre was called Sarra, and the fifli Sar.

(9) Ccelejlis ntiminis hyacinthus. The learned Morgagni of Padoua thinks, that it ought
to be read luminis , fo that the author means the sky-blue hyacinth ; this would be very
well, if warranted by fome manufcript : what makes it very probable is, that Columella
very frequently mentions the colour of herbs, or of their flowers, without any further
defcription ; or perhaps he means, that this flower was facred to fome deity.

(10) Corycius bulbus croci. Corycus , a high hill in Cilicia , where grew plenty of excel¬
lent faffron. Pliny gives the preference to the Chilian, efpecially to that which grew upon
this mountain, next to the Lycian upon mount Olympus , and the third place to that of
Sicily : he fays, that it is eafily adulterated ; he gives a mark whereby to know the ge¬
nuine, viz. if it cracks, and makes a noife when the hand is laid upon it, as if it were
brittle, this is to be underftood, when it is dry ; and that the moift, which becomes fo
by adulteration, yields when it is handled. Another fign of its being genuine is, that,
when any one has handled it, and brings his hand to his mouth, it gently bites the face,
and the eyes ; with feveral other remarks to be feen in his Natural Hijlory , lib. xxi.
cap. 6.

(11) Lapfana. Pliny places it among the wild coleworts or cabbage; fays it is a
foot high, with hairy leaves, very like thofe of the navew, except that it has a whiter
flower, lib. xx. cap. 9. And in another place he calls it olus filvefire trium foliorum ; a
wild kind of pot-herb, with three leaves, much celebrated by fome verfes Julius Co? far

made

Chap. IV. Of HUSBANDRY. 389

than thefe, the wild radifh (12), and the charlock , or wild mu (hard pot¬
herb, and the flowers of wild endive, and black poppy ; alfo the wild
parfnip, and the cultivated one of the fame name, which the Greeks
call Jlaphylinon. But of all thefe I have mentioned, and of thofe
which I have omitted, endeavouring to fave time, (for their number
could not be reckoned up) thyme gives the mold exquifite tafle to
honey: then the next is thymbra or Greek favory (13), and mother
of thyme : of the third fort, but yet exceeding good, is rofemary,
and our own Italian favory, which I call fatureia : then tamarifk-
and jujeb-flowers, and the other kinds of food which we have pro-
pofed, are of a middling tafle. But, of all, wood-honey, which
cometh of the broom-tree, and the ftrawberry-tree, and the manor-
houfe honey alfo, which breeds in pot-herbs, and in herbs that grow
in dunghils, are reckoned of the very worft character. And fince I
have defcribed the fituation of their paftures, and alfo their feveral
forts of food, I fhall now fpeak of the receptacles of the fwarms, and
of their little dwelling-houfes.

made upon it, which his foldiers ufed to ling by turns ; and by thefe, and their ov/n
military jokes, they ufed to reproach him with their living upon this herb at Dyrrhachium ,
fcoffing and cavilling at the niggardly rewards they received for the hardfliips they en¬
dured. Some think that the root, wherewith Julius Cafar's army fuftained themfelves,
and of which they made bread, was different from this, and was the wild parfnip.

(12) Armor acta, the wild radifh. The Italians have made but very little alteration
in this word, and call it aramorico , and remolaco. Diofcorides fays, ’Paipcii'is dyeta, hr
'Vu\j.a.Ut dpy.o&uictv KdctHat, the wild radifh, which the Romans call arnioracia.

(13) Thymbra. Some make this thytnbra , cunila , and Jatureia , to be the very fame;
but our author feems to make them different herbs. Matthiolus fays, that there are two forts
of the thymbra ; firft, that of Diofcorides, which is like thyme, but lefler and tenderer ■,
that its fmall ftalks end in fpiked proceffcs, in which appear flowers fomething of a purple
colour : the other fort is more bufhy, with many little, round, woody branches circu¬
larly difpofed : that it has leaves larger than thyme, fomewhat rough, and harder, which
fprout out about the fhoots feveral together, at certain diftances; and from the place
where thefe leaves arife, certain fpiked proceffcs come forth, crouded with little leaves
fmaller than the reft, out of which fpring fmall flowers, tending from purple to white :
and this he thinks to be the tunila fo often mentioned by Columella ; and that in TuJ-
cany they call it coniel/a, which is a corruption of cunila. Tliny fays, that it has feed
like that of penny-royal. See Matthiolus in Diofcorid. for a further description of it.

C I I A P,

L. J. M. COLUMELLA

Book IX.

C H A P. V.

Of chufmg Seats for Bees .

A Seat for bees mu ft be placed oppofite to the Sun at noon, in the
middle of winter, far from tumult, and crouds of men and
cattle, in a place neither warm nor cold ; for both the one, and the
other, is very troublefome to them. But let it be in the lower part of
a valley, that both the empty bees, when they go forth to forage, or
to gather their food, may fly up the more eaflly to the higher grounds ;
and, having gathered fuch things as are proper for their ufe, may fly
down through the fteep places, with their burden, without any
difficulty.

If the fituation of the manor-houfe will admit of it, it is not to
be doubted, but we fhould join the apiary to the building, and fur-
round it with a wall ; but it mull be in that part which is free from
the noifome fmells of the neceffary-houfe, the dunghil, and the
bagnio. But, fuppofe the fituation be unfavourable, neverthelefs, if
other very great inconveniences do not concur, it is more expedient,
that the apiary be thus placed, and be under the eyes of the owner.
But, if all things be unfriendly, without doubt let a neighbouring
valley be pitched upon, whither the poffeffor may frequently go down
without any great inconveniency : for that bufinels requires the greateft
honefly and fidelity ; which, becaufe it is exceeding rare, is better
fecured and preferved by the owner’s coming unawares. Nor does it
only hate and abhor a fraudulent Overfeer and Manager, but floth-
fulnefs alfo, which produces naflinefs : for it is equally provoked and
offended with dirty and flovenly treatment, as with fraudulent manage¬
ment.

But, where-ever the bee-hives fhall be placed, let them not be in-
clofed with a very high wall j and if, through fear of robbers, you
are better pleafed with one that is higher, let it be paffable for the
bees, with fmall windows, all in a row, three feet high from the
ground ; and let a cottage be joined to it, wherein both the Keepers may
dwell, and the implements be laid up : and let it be chiefly replenifhed
with hives prepared before-hand for the ufe of the young fwarms, as
alfo with wholfome medicinal herbs j and if there be any other things
which are applied to fuch as are fick and languifhing.

2

* And

39i

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY.

‘ And let the palm, or huge wild-olive tree
4 O’erfhade the porch, that, when new kings lead forth
4 The firft-hatch’d fwarms ; and when the lportive youth,

* From clofe confinement freed, fhall, in the fpring,
c Make Tallies from their hives, and play all round ;

4 The neighb ’ring bank may, from the fcorching heat,

* Invite them to retire ; and th’ obvious tree

* With verdant leavy fhelters hop their flight (i).’

Then let continually running water, if you have the conveniency of
it, be conveyed into it ; or let it be given by hand in a canal or trough,
built for that purpofe, without which neither the honey-combs, nor
the honey, nor the young bees, can be formed. Whether therefore,
as I faid, water that is conftantly running by, or well-water, be fent
into them by canals, let there be piles of Hones and rods raifed in it
for the conveniency of the bees (2)}

‘ That on thefe frequent bridges they may Hand
4 Secure, and to the fummer-lun expand
4 Their wings, if chance the eaft wind’s headlong blaffc

* Has fprinkled, or has plung’d them in the deep.’

Then round the whole apiary ought to be planted little trees of
final 1 growth, efpecially for their wholfomenefs : for cytifus or fhrub-
trefoil, as alfo the caflia, and the pine-trees, and rofemary, are a
remedy for them when they are languifhing j as alfo the fialks of
wild marjoram and thyme ; as alfo thofe of violets, or whatever other
things the quality of the ground fuffers to be ufefully planted. Let
not only green things of a difagreeable and noifome fmell, but alfo
all other things whatfoever, of the fame quality, be kept at a diftance
from them ; fuch as the fmell of a crab, when it is burnt in the fire j
or the fmell of mud and dirt taken out of a marfh. Likewife let
hollow rocks, or Thrill loud-founding valleys, which the Greeks call
(echoes) be avoided.

(1) Virg. Georg. lib. iv. 20.

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. iv. 27s

CHAP.

39*

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

CHAP. VI.

Of fuch Sorts of Bee-hives as ought to he approved.

Herefore, when their feats are put in order, bee-hives muft be
f fabricated according to the condition and circumftances of the
country. For if it be fertile of the cork-tree, without any doubt we
may make very ufeful hives of its bark, becaufe they are neither ex¬
tremely cold in winter, nor exceeding hot in fummer : or, if it abounds
in fennel-giants, of thefe alfo vafes are woven with equal conveniency,
as they are like to the nature of bark. If neither of thefe is ready at
hand, they join willows together, and weave them like weavers work :
and, if thefe cannot be had, they muft be made of the wood of a tree
made hollow, or fawn into boards. Thofe made of potters earth
have the very worft quality of any ; for the fummer-heats fet them
on fire, and they are frozen with the winter-colds.

There are two other kinds of hives remaining, which may either
be made of dung, or built of brick : one of which Celfus very juftly
difapproved, becaufe it is very obnoxious to fire ; the other he ap¬
proved, tho’ he did not diffemble its chiefeft difadvantage, viz. that,
if there fhould be occafion for it, it cannot be removed from one
place to another : therefore I do not agree with him who thinks,
that, notwithftanding this inconveniency, bee-hives of this kind ought
to be had for not only is it repugnant to the intereft of the owner,
that they be fuch as cannot be removed, when at any time he may
have a mind either to fell them, or to furnifh other grounds with
them (for this conveniency relates only to the advantage of the Mafter
of the family) ; but as to what ought to be done for the advantage,
and on the account, of the bees themfelves, when they are afflidted
either with a diftemper, or with the barrennefs and penury of the
place ; and it may be proper, that they be fent into another quarter ;
and they cannot be moved for the forefaid reafon ; this is principally
to be avoided. Therefore, altho’ I reverence the authority of that
moft learned man, yet, fetting afide all ambition, I have not omitted
tc declare my own opinion : for that which chiefly moves Celfus , viz.
left the bee-ftalls be liable either to fire or thieves, may be avoided
by building a brick-work round the hives, that an obftacle may be
put to the rapacioufnefs of the robber, and the hives be protected
againft the violence of fire : and when it is neceffary to move them,
I and

393

Chap. VII. Of HUSBANDRY.

and carry them to another place, it may be done by loofening the
joinings of the ttrudture.

CHAP. VII.

/

After what Ma?t?ier the Hives muft be placed.

BUT becaufe mod: people think, that this requires too much
labour and pains, therefore whatever fort of hives they fliall
think moft proper to be placed, there ought to be a bank of (tone
extended through the whole apiary, three feet in height, and as many
in thicknefs j and, when it is thus built, it ought to be carefully
fmoothed with plaifter, that there may be no way for Iizzards, or
ferpents, or other noxious animals, to climb up to them. Then upon
this bank are placed, either (as Celfus directs) domicils made of bricks,
or (as we are bed: pleafed with) hives, with brick-work built about
them, except behind: or, which is the common practice with all
people, who are diligent and careful about thefc things, there are
vafes placed all in a row, which are fattened and bound either with
fmall bricks, or with rough ttone and mortar, fo that each of them
is contained within two narrow walls, and the back- and fore-parts
are open and free : for fometimes they mutt be laid open both on
that fide where the bees go forth, and much more on the back-fide,
becaufe the fwarms are cured from time to time.

But if no walls are built between the hives, neverthelefs they mutt
be fo placed, that they may be a little dittant from each other, left,
when they are viewed and looked into, that which is handled in the
cleaning and curing of it, fhould fbake the other, which tticks clofe
to it, and bruife the neighbouring bees, which are afraid of every
motion given to their weak wax-works, as of ruin and deftrudtion to
them. It is fufficient indeed, that there be three rows of vafes built
up in height one above the other, becaufe even fo the perfon that
cures them cannot very conveniently look into the uppermoft.

Let the mouths of the hives, which afford entries to the bees, lean
more downward, and be more doping, than their backs, that the
rains may not flow into them ; and if, notwithftanding, they chance
to get in, that they may not remain there, but run out by the entry:
for which reafon it is proper, that the hives be fenced and fecured
with porches above the entries : if otherwife, they mutt be fhadowed

E e e with

394 L. J. M, COLUMELLA BooklX.

with green boughs daubed over with Carthaginian clay, which cover¬
ing keeps out both the colds, and th^ rains] and the heats. Never-
thelefs the burning heat is not fo hurtful to this kind of animals as
the winter is : therefore let there always be a building behind the
apiary, which may receive the injury of the north wind, and give a
moderate heat to the bee-hives. Likewife the domicils themfelves,
altho’ they be protected by the building, ought to be fo placed, as
to be diredly oppofite to the fun-rifing in winter, that fo the bees
may have the benefit of the warmth of the fun when they go out in
the morning, and may be thereby the more brifk and adive j for cold
begets fluggifhnefs : for which reafon alfo the holes, by which they
go out and come in, ought to be very ftrait, that they may admit as
little cold as poffible : and it is fufficient, that they be fo bored, that
they may not receive more than one bee at its full growth. So neither
the poifonous newt, nor the unlucky and mifchievous kind of beetle
or butterfly, nor the light-fhunning wood-loufe, as Maro fays, plunder
the honey-combs through the gate, when it is wider and larger than
it ought to be. And it is a very great advantage, that, in proportion
to the number of bees in the bee-hive, there be two or three paflages
made in the fame cover, at fome diftance the one from the ether, to
guard againft the deceit and craft of the lizzard, who, like a watch
or keeper of the entry, and gaping for his prey, with open mouth
deftroys the bees as they go out ; and fewer of them perifli when they
are at liberty to avoid the lnares of this peft, that befieges them, by
efcaping through another paflage.

CHAP. VIII.

Of pur chafing Bees , and how wild Swanns may he taken,

WHAT we have faid may fuffice concerning the chufing of
paftures, dwelling-houfes, and feats for them ; which being
provided, the next thing we are to do is to feek for fwarms : and
they come to us either by purchafe, or by free gift. But fuch of
them as we fhall purchafe with money, let us try, and approve them
more carefully by the forefaid marks : and let us confider how nu¬
merous they are before we buy them, by opening the hives, and
looking into them : or, if we cannot conveniently look into them,
doubtlels we fliall mark what we can call our eyes upon, whether

there

Chap. VIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 395

there are very many of them ftanding in the porch of the gate, and a
vehement found be heard of thofe that are humming within doors ;
and alfo (if peradventure they are all filent, and at reft within their
dvvelling-houfe) we may make an eftimate either of the greatnefs or
fmalnefs of their number, from the fudden noife and murmuring,
that will follow upon our having applied our lips to the holes of the
entry, and breathed ftrongly into them.

But we muft efpecially be careful, that they be brought rather from
the neighbourhood than from diftant regions, becaufe they ufe to be
highly provoked with the ftrangenefs of the climate. But if this can¬
not be obtained, and we be under the neceffity of carrying them long
journeys, we muft take care, that they be not difturbed and made
uneafy by the ruggednefs of the roads : and it will be beft to carry
them upon one’s fhoulders in the night-time j for in the day-time they
muft have reft given them j and fuch liquors as are acceptable to the
bees muft be poured into the hives, whereby they may be nourifhed
within their inclofures. Then after they are brought home, if the
day come upon you fooner than you expected, the hive muft neither
be opened, nor placed in the bee-ftall, except in the evening, that
the bees may go out peaceable and quiet in the morning, after they
have refted the whole night : and we ought to be upon the watch
for the fjpace of three days almoft, to obferve if they fally out all in
a body j which when they do, they are contriving to make their
efcape : we muft prefently give orders for fuch remedies as ought to
be made ufe of, in order to put a ftop to them. But fuch as come
into our hands, either in prefents, or which we catch by furprize,
are not fo fcrupuloufly inquired into : although even in that manner,
I would not have any in my pofleftion but the very beft ; feeing both
the good and the bad require the fame expence, and the fame labour
of a Keeper : and, which is of very great importance, the bafe and
degenerate, which may bring infamy and reproach upon thofe that
are of a generous kind, muft not be intermixed with them ; for the
produce of honey is lefs than you expected, when more llothful and
idle fwarms intervene.

Neverthelefs, becaufe fometimes, by reafon of the nature and cir-
cumftances of the places, we muft provide ourfelves even with cattle
that are but indifferent, (for, to be fure, that which is bad is by no
means to be provided) we muft ufe our endeavours to fearch out the
fwarms after this manner : Where-ever there are forefts proper for
making of honey, there is nothing that the bees do fooner, than to
make choice of the neighbouring fountains, which they may make

E e e 2 ufe

396 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book IX.

ufe of. Therefore it is proper to befet them, for the moft part, from
the fecond hour of the day, and to watch what numbers of them'
come to fetch water : for, if there are few of them that fly about, (ex¬
cept there be feveral heads of rivulets, which make them thinner, when
they are feparated from one another) they give us to underftand, that
there is a fcarcity of them; by reafon of which we will fulpedt, that
the place is not productive of honey. But, if they affemble in great
numbers, they give us al fo greater hopes of catching fwarms of them,
and they are found out after this manner :

Firft, we muft fearch, and find out, how far off they are ; and
for this purpofe liquid oker muft be prepared, wherewith having1
tinged fome ftraws, or ftalks of herbs, when with the fame you touch
the backs of the bees that fip in the fountains, if you ftay in the fame
place, you will the more eafily know them, when they come back ;
and if they make no great flay, you may know, that they have their
abode in the neighbourhood : but, if they be a long while before they
return, you (hall make an eflimate of the diftance of the place accord¬
ing to the time of their delay. But, if you obferve, that they return
quick, if, with no great difficulty, you can follow them in the way
they fly, you fhall be eafily conduced to the place where the fwarm
has its feat.

But you muft make ufe of more fkill and prudence, with refpeCt
to thofe which (hall be feen to go farther off; which is fuch as this :
You muft cut off an intire joint of a reed with its own knots, and
bore an hole in the fide of the cutting ; and, having dropped a little
honey, or fodden muft, into it through the faid hole, you muft place
it hard by the fountain : then, when, at the fmell of the fweet liquor,
feveral bees fhall have crept into it, you muft take up the cutting ;
and, having put your thumb upon the hole, you muft let out only one
of them at a time, which, after it has made its efcape, fhews the
Obferver the place to which it direCls its courfe ; and he, as long as
he can hold it out, purfues it as it flies away : then, when he lofes
fight of the bee, he fends out another ; and if it flies towards the
fame part of the heaven, he continues to purfue in the fame path ;
but if otherwife, he fuffers one after another to go out at the open
hole : and let him mark the quarter towards which moft of them fly,
and purfue them, till he be brought to the lurking-hole of the whole
fwarm.

But, if the fwarm be hid in a cave, you may fetch them out with
fmoak ; and, when they have fallied out, you check and flop them
with the noife of brafs : for, being prefently terrified with the found,

they

Chap. VIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 397

*hey will fit down either upon a Ihrub, or on an higher bough of a
tree ; and the perfon that fearches for them, and finds them out, puts
them up in a vafe prepared for that purpofe. But if they have taken
up their feat in an hollow tree, and if either the branch, which they
have feated themfelves upon, fiands out from the body of the tree,
or they are in the very trunk of the tree itfelf, then, if the middling
fize of it will fuffer it, firft the upper-part of it, which is empty of
bees, is cut off with a very fharp faw, that it may be done the
fooner; then the lower part alfo, as far as it feems to be inhabited;
Then, after it is cut through at both ends, it is covered over with a
clean garment ; for this alfo is of very great importance ; and, if it
has any gaping chinks, you fill them up with clay, and fo bring it to
the pl'ace : and, fome fmall holes in it (as I faid already) being left
open, it is placed in the fame manner as the reft of the bee-hives.

But it is proper, that the perfon, who makes it his bufinefs to fearch
for them, and find them out, make choice of the morning- tide, that
he may have the whole day before him to fpy out the places where
the bees frequent, and go and come. For often, if he has begun to
obferve them too late, when they have their feat in the neighbour¬
hood, they retire, after they have finifhed their ordinary talk of work,
and do not return to the water ; whereby it comes to pafs, that the
perfon who fearches for them is ignorant how far the fwarm is diftant
from the fountain. There are fome who, in the beginning of the
fpring, gather mint, and (as the forefajd poet fays)

* Bruis’d balm, and honey wort’s ignoble grafs (i) ;*

And other-like herbs, wherewith this kind of animals is delighted
and fo rub the hives throughly with them, that the fmell and the
juice of them may ftick to the veflel ; which, when they have cleaned
them, they fprinkle again with a little honey, and place them up
and down the woods not far from the fountains; and, when they are
filled with fwarms, they carry them home. But it is not expedient
to do this, except in places where there is abundance of bees; for
often they who by chance pafs by, when they find the empty vefiels,
carry them away with them : nor is the obtaining one or two full
ones of fo great account, as to compenfate the lofs of leveral empty
ones. But in. a greater plenty, altho’ many of them are intercepted,
yet more is acquired by the bees that are found : and this is the method
of catching wild fwarms of bees.

(i) Virg. Georg, iv. 70.

CHAR

398

L.J.M, COLUMELLA Book IX.

CHAP. IX.

After what Manner our own Country-Bees ought to he obfervedy

and put up into Hives .

MOreover, there is fuch another method of retaining the fwarms
that are bred in our own country. The Keeper, indeed, ought
always carefully to go round the bee-hives ; for there is no time
wherein they do not want his care and management : but they re¬
quire a more punctual and diligent attendance, when they fwarm in
the fpring, and their new offspring breaks out of their hives, which
cannot contain them ; and unlefs the Overfeer conftantly befieges them,
and prefently receives and entertains them, the young ones make their
efcape ; becaufe, fuch is the nature of bees, that every commonalty
is generated at the fame time with their kings, which, as foon as they
have got ftrength to fly out of their hives, difdain and defpife the
company, and the fociety, of their feniors, and much more their govern¬
ment and command : for as mankind, endued with reafon, will not
allow of any partnerfhip in the regal power, far lefs will thefe dumb
animals, who are deftitute of counfel.

Therefore the new chieftains come forth with their youth, which
remaining conglomerated for one or two days in the very porch of
their dwelling-houfe, by their coming out of it they fhew, that they
defire to have a feat of their own ; and if one be prefently affigned
them by their Keeper, they are fatisfied with it, as if it were their
native country. But if the Keeper be out of the way, and negledts
it, they go to a ftrange country, as if they were wrongfully caft out
of their own. To prevent this, it is the bufinefs of a good Overfeer
to have his eyes upon the hives, during the fpring-time, almoft till
the eighth hour of the day, after which the young fwarms do not
precipitantly withdraw themfelves; and carefully to watch and obferve
both when they go out, and when they return ; for there are fome,
which, breaking out all of a fudden, fteal away without any delay.
He may certainly find out, and know beforehand, their intended
'flight, by applying his ear to each of the hives in the evening : for fo
it is, that almoft for three days before they defign to make an erup¬
tion, there arifes a tumult, and confufed noife and murmur among

them.

Chap. IX. Of HUSBANDRY. 399

them, as of an army going to march: from which, as Virgil fays
very truly (i),

f ’Tis eafy to foreknow the vulgar’s minds :

* For fuch as loit ring Hand, the martial found

‘ Of the hoarfe brafs reproves ; likewife a voice

* Is heard, which imitates the broken founds

* Of trumpets.’

Therefore the hives that do this ought efpecially to be obferved,
that whether they fhall fally out to battle, (for they often fight
amongfl themfelves, as in civil wars, and with other hives, as with
foreign nations) or break out all of a fudden, in order to make their
efcape, the Keeper may be prefent, ready prepared for both events.
A quarrel, indeed, either of one hive difagreeing among themfelves,
or of two hives at variance the one with the other, is eafily quelled :
for, as the fame poet fays (2),

* With throwing of fmall dull the ftrife is check’d,

* And ceafes’ -

Or with raifin-wine, or mead, or any other fuch-like liquor fprinkled
upon them : for fo it is, that the fweetnefs of thefe things, being
familiar to them, appeafes their wrath, when they are in a rage. For
the fame things alfo have a wonderful influence to reconcile the kings
that are at variance : for often there are more captains of one people,
and by the fedition, as it were, of the nobility, the common people
is divided into fa&ions, which muft not be fuftered to happen fre¬
quently, becaufe whole nations are confumed by inteftine wars. There¬
fore, if the princes be in friendfhip and favour with one another,
peace continues without bloodthed : but, if you fhall obferve them
very often engaged in a pitched battle, you fhall take care to kill the
ring-leaders of the feditions j but by the forefaid remedies, their battles
and quarrels are compofed. And, furthermore, when a great multi¬
tude of them fits down all in a lump, upon the next branch of a
green leavy little tree, obferve whether the whole fwarm hangs down
from it like one duller of grapes : and this fhall be a fign, either that
there is only one king among them j or that, if there be more of
them, they are heartily reconciled j which you may fuffer to continue
fo, till they fly back again to their own habitation.

(1) Virg. Georg, iv. 70.

(2) Virg. Georg, iv. 87*

T

But

400 L. J. M. C 0 L U M E L L A Book IX.

But if the fwarm be divided and diftinguifhed, as it were, into
two, or feveral udders alfo, you need not doubt but there are feveral
rulers among them, and that they are as yet angry : and you ought
to fearch for their captains in thofe parts wherein you fee the bees are
aflembled and conglomerated in greateft numbers. Therefore, having
anointed your hand with the juice of the fore-mentioned herbs, that
is, of balm-gentle or mint, left they run away when you touch them,
you muft put in your fingers gently among them j and, having feparated
the bees from one another, you muft fearch till you find the author
of the quarrel, whom you ought to fqueeze to death.

CHAP. X.

Of the Form and Make of the King of the Bees .

BU T thefe kings are a little larger and more oblong than the other
bees, with ftraighter legs, but not fo large wings, of a beautiful
bright- fhining colour, brilk and nimble, and without hair, without a
fting, unlefs any think, that the fuller hair, as it were, which they
carry in their belly, is their fting ; and even of this itfelf they make
no ufe to hurt withal. Some of them alfo are found of a dufky
colour, and briftly, whofe difpofition and temper you may condemn
from the habit and make of their body.

4 Two forts of features, and two different forms
4 Of bodies, have the kings, which rule this folk :

4 The one with fpots of glift ’ring gold adorn’d,

4 And with bright-fhining fcales, and comely face,

4 In fplendid ftate appears (i).’

And this, which is the beft of the two, is moft approved ; for the
worft, like fordid fpittle, is as ugly and ill-favoured as

4 The traveller, who comes from depths of duft,

4 And from his parched mouth fpits moift’ned earth : ’

And, as the fame poet fays,

6 With doth inglorious drags his fpacious paunch.’

(i) Virg. Georg, iy. 93 —

Therefore

40i

Chap. XI. Of II U S B A N D R Y.

Therefore all the Generals of a bafer character

* Deftroy, and let the better Prince bear fway,

‘ And reign without a rival in his court.’

Neverthelefs he himfelf muft be flript of his wings, when he often
makes eruptions with his fwarm, and endeavours to run away : for,
having pulled off his wings, we (hall retain the vagabond General, as
it were, with a chain at his foot ; who, being deprived of all means of
making his efcape, will not dare to go without the bounds of his
kingdom ; for which reafon he does not indeed allow the people of
his dominion to ramble up and down, and wander at a greater diflance
from him.

CHAP. XI.

How the Smalnefs of the Number' of the Bees may be

remedied.

BUT fometimes the King muft be put to death, when the old
bee-hive has not a fufficient number of bees ; and its want of
number muft be fupplied by fome other fwarm. Therefore, when,
in the beginning of the fpring, a numerous young brood has been
hatched in that hive, the new King muft be fqueezed to death, that
the multitude may continue to live with their parents without dif-
cord. But if the honey-combs lhall have produced no progeny at
all, you may bring the commonalty of two or three hives together
into one ; but they muft be firfl fprinkled with fweet liquor : then
afterwards you may fhut them up, and, having placed meat for them,
you may keep them fhut up almoft for the fpace of three days, leav¬
ing fmall breathing-places for them, till they accuftom themfelves to
converfe familiarly, and live together.

There are fome who may rather chufe to put the older King out of
the way, which proves very hurtful j becaufe the more aged multi¬
tude, if he be put to death, mull of neceflity, like a number of old
fenators, obey thofe that are younger than themfelves -f and, if there
be any of them that obftinately defpife the commands of thofe that
are ftronger, they are punifhed, and put to death.

F f f

Neverthelefs

402 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

Neverthelefs this inconveniency ufually befals a younger fwarm,
when the King of the antienter bees, which was left by us, fails, and,
through old age, becomes uncapable to govern, that the family falls
into difcord from too great licentioufnefs, as if their Lord were dead.
To which a remedy is eafily applied : for out of thofe hives, which
have feveral kings, one General is chofen ; and, being tranflated to
thole bees which are without any government, is condituted their
ruler.

But the paucity of the bees may be remedied with lefs trouble, in
thofe domicils which labour under any peliilen tial didemper : for
after the havock and definition of the hive, reduced to a fmall
number, is known, you muff examine and view what honey-combs
it has : then, afterwards, from the wax which contains the feeds of
the young bees, you mud cut away that part wherein the offspring
of the royal kind is animated : for this is eafy to be feen • be-
caufe, at the very end of the wax- works, there appears, as it were,
the nipple of a pap rifing higher, and of a wider cavity than the reft
of the holes are of wherein the young bees of vulgar note are con¬
tained. Celfus indeed affirms, that, in the outmod honey-combs,
there are tranfverfe pipes or cavities, which contain the young royal
progeny. Hyginus alfo, following the authority of the Greeks , de¬
nies that the Captain-general is formed of a little worm or maggot
(as the red of the bees are) ; but that in the circumference of the
honey-combs there are found draight holes, fomewhat larger than
thofe of the Plebeian feed, filled, as it were, with a fordid fubdance
of a red colour, out of which the winged King is at fird immediately
formed.

CHAP. XII.

Of putting up a Swarm of Bees into their Hive , and hinder¬
ing them from makmg their Efcape .

THere is alfo that care which is to be taken of a fwarm bred in
our own bee-dall, if by chance they fhould grow weary of,
and abhor, their native country ; and, by making an eruption at the
forefaid time, declare their intention of betaking themfelves by flight
to a more didant habitation. And the hive gives intimation of this,
when the bee fo avoids the porch of her houfe, that not one of them
6 flies

Chap. XIII. Of HUSBANDR Y. 403

flies back to it, but prefently raifes herfelf to a greater height. Let
the youth that are making their efcape be terrifed with brazen tim¬
brels, or rattles, or with the found of earthen vefiels, or tiles, which,
for the moft part, lie every- where : and when, after they are fright¬
ened, they either return to their maternal hive, and hang all in a
clew in the entry to it, or prefently betake themfelves to the next
green leavy bough ; let the Keeper prefently rub and anoint all over
a new hive, prepared for that purpofe, with the forefaid herbs : then
having fprinkled it with drops of honey, let him apply it to them ;
then, gathering the bees together, let him put them into it, either
with his hands, or with a bowl : and after all other due care has
been taken, and the vale has been carefully adjufted and daubed over,
let him fuffer it, in the mean while, to remain in the fame place,
till it draws towards evening ; then, in the beginning of the twilight,
let him remove it thence, and place it in the row of the other hives.
But it is neceftary alfo to have empty houles placed for them in the
apiary : for there are fome hives which, as foon as they come forth,
prefently feek for a feat for themfelves in the neighbourhood, and
take pofleffion of that which they find empty. This is almoft a com¬
plete account of the care that is neceflary both for acquiring and re¬
taining of bees.

CHAP. XIII.

Of Remedies for Bees labouring under any D'femper.

THE next thing is to inquire after remedies for fuch as labour
under any diftemper, or are afflidted with the peftilence. The
plague rarely proves deftrudtive to bees : neverthelefs I do not find
that any other thing can be done, than that which we directed with
refpedt to other forts of cattle, that the hives be removed to fome
diftant place. But, in thefe, both the caufes of their difeafes are moie
eafily difcerned, and their remedies found out. But their greateft an¬
nual diftemper is in the beginning of the fpring, when the young
fprigs of J purge bloftom, and the elms difclofe their feeds; for as with
new apples, fo they are alluded with thefe primitive flowers ; and
they feed greedily upon them after their winter hunger, fuch food
being no otherwife hurtful to them but their eating of it to excefs,
with which having glutted themielves, they die of a looieneis, unlefs

F f f 2 they

404 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

they have fpeedy relief ; for fpurge gives a loofenefs to other animals
alfo, but elms particularly to bees : and this is the reafon why bees
feldom continue numerous in the regions of Italy y which are planted
with trees of this kind. Therefore in the beginning of the fpring,
if you give them medicated food, by the fame remedies you may both
prevent their being afflidted with fuch a plague, and they may be
cured when they are feized with it.

For as to what Hyginus , who followed authors that lived before
his time, has delivered, I myfelf dare not affirm it, not having made
the experiment ; neverthelefs they who have a mind to it may try
it. For he directs us about the time of the vernal equinox, when
the clemency of the day invites, after the third hour, to bring forth,
and expofe to the Sun, the bodies of thofe bees, which, when fuch
a plague has feized them, are found killed in heaps under the honey¬
combs, and have been laid up in a dry place during the winter, and
to cover them over with fig-tree afhes ; which being done, he affirms,
that, within two hours, being animated with the enlivening fleam
of the heat, and having refumed their fpirit, they will creep into an
hive prepared for that purpofe, if it be let before them. We rather,
that they may not periffi, advife that fuch things, as we fhall here¬
after prefcribe, be given to the hives when they are fick : for either
the kernels of the pomegranate bruifed, and fprinkled with Aminean
wine, or raifins of the Sun bruifed in a mortar with ros Syriacus (i)
[Syrian fumach) in equal quantity, and well foaked in rough wine,
ought to be given them ; or, if thefe by themfelves have no effect,
all thefe fame things, an equal weight of each, being fmoothed, and
reduced into one mafs, and boiled with Aminean wine in an earthen
veffel, and afterward cooled, ought to be fet before them in wooden
troughs.

Some people make a decodlion of rofemary and mead, and, after it
is turned to a gelly, pour it into hollow tiles, and give it them to lip.
Some fet ox’s or human urine by the hives (as Hyginus affirms).
Likewife that difeafe alfo is very remarkable, which confumes them,
and makes them fhrink, and become ill-favoured ; when fome of

(i) Ros Syriacus is the Rhus Grascorum. Vliny fays, that the Romans had no name for
it, lib. xxiv. cap. n. plura Rhois nomina apud Galenum , mo do Sjriacum , mo do Ponticum
mo do Obfoniorum. Matthiolus fays, they are all of one fort, and that there was no man¬
ner of difference in the trees; that the feed was ufed for feafoning vi&uab, and the tan¬
ners made ufe of the leaves and Iprigs becanfe of their aftringenr quality,- fo that, it
feems, they are miftaken, who think, that Ros Syriacus , in Columella and Ce/fusJ is a fort
of manna or dew that falls from the air ; l'o that Rhos , which is a Greek word, mud be
the true reading. It is of an aftringent quality, and preferred by our author as a remedy
lor bees, when they are troubled with a loofenefs.

them

Chap. XIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 405

them frequently carry out of their houfes the bodies of thofe that are
dead, and others of them fit dull and languishing within their houfes,
in Sorrowful filence, as in a public mourning. When this happens,
food poured into pipes, or troughs made of reeds, is offered them ;
efpecially of well-boiled honey, and bruifed with a gall, or a dry rofe.
It is proper alfo to burn galbanum, that they may be cured with the
l'mell of it; and, when they are wearied, to fuftain them with raifins
of the Sun, and old fodden mull : nevertheless the root of amellus , of
which theftalkand Sprigs are yellowifh, and the flower purple-coloured,
does exceeding well ; it is boiled with Aminean wine, and ftrained,
and fo the diffolved juice of it is given them.

Hyginus indeed, in the book he wrote of bees, fays, that Arijlo-
machus was of opinion, that relief ought to be given to fuch of them
as are fick, in this manner: firfi, That all the vitiated honey- combs
be taken away, and frefh food placed anew for them ; and then that
they be fumigated. He alfo thinks, that it does good to bees, wafted
with old age, to add a new fwarm to them, altho’ they may be in
danger of being con fumed by Sedition ; nevertheless they will be glad
when a multitude is joined to them.. But, that they may live together
in concord, the Kings of thofe bees, which are tranflated from another
habitation, being, as it were, a foreign people, ought to be removed out
of the way. Neverthelefs there is no doubt, but that the honey¬
combs of very numerous Swarms, which have young ones already
formed in them, ought to be tranflated, and Subjected to thofe fwarms
which are fewer in number, that fo their houfes may be confirmed
and eftablifhed by the adoption, as it were, of a new offspring. But,
whenever this Shall be done, we mud be mindful to put thofe honey¬
combs under their care, whofe young bees do already break open the
places of their abode, and gnaw through the wax which was laid
over them as covers to their holes, putting out their heads : for, if we
tranflate the honey-combs while the brood is not come to maturity,
the young bees will die, when they ceafe to be cherifhed and kept
warm.

Oft-times alfo they die of a difeafe, which the Greeks call <pa<yg-
frcuvcL (2) : forafmuch as this is an ordinary cuflom with bees, to make
as much wax-work at firft as they think they Shall be able to fill up;
it Sometimes comes to pafs, that, after their wax-works are finifhed,

(2) ixyiS'etiva.. Pliny , Hijl. Nnjl. lib. xxv i. 11. tells us, that this word has ttvo figni-
fi cation ; either an eating ulcer, or a voracious appetite that cannot be fatisfied, which
the Greeks call Probably our author took it in the firft fenfe, to denote fome

difeafe incident to bees.

the

4o6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

the fwarm, wandering at too great a diftance, in order to fearch for
honey, is overwhelmed with hidden fhowers, or whirlwinds, in the
woods, and lofes the greateft part of the Plebeians : whenever this
happens, the few that remain are not able to fill up the honey¬
combs ; then thofe parts of the wax-works which are empty rot,
and difeales creeping in by little and little, after the honey is cor¬
rupted, the bees themfelves perifh alfo. To prevent this, two dif¬
ferent people ought to be united, W'hich may be able to fill up the
wax-works while they are yet found ; or, if we have not another
fwarm fit for our purpofe, we muft, with a very {harp knife, free
the honey-combs from the empty parts before they begin to rot : for
this alfo is of very great importance, that the iron tool be not very
blunt, left, being prefled in with greater force, (becaufe it does not
eafily penetrate) it move the honey-combs out of their places 5 for, if
this be done, the bees forfake their habitation.

There is this caufe alfo of their deftrudtion, that fometimes for
feveral years following very many flowers come up, and the bees are
more intent upon making honey than upon brooding. Therefore fome
who have lefs knowledge in thefe things, are delighted with a great
produce, not knowing that the bees are upon the very brink of de-
ftrudtion ; becaufe, being wearied with too much labour, very many
of them perifh ; and their numbers not being increafed with new fupplies
of youth, at laft the reft die alfo. Therefore, if fuch a fpring fliould
happen, that both the meadows and the corn-lands fhould abound in
flowers, it will be of very great advantage, that all the paflages of the
hives, through which the bees go out, be fhut up, leaving fmall holes,
through which they may not be able to go out, that fo being with¬
drawn from their bufinefs of making honey, becaufe they have no
hopes of filling up all their wax-works with liquors, they may fill
them up with a young breed. And thefe are ordinarily the remedies
of fwarms of bees that labour under any diftemper.

C H A P.

Chap. XIV. Of HUSBANDR Y.

407

CHAP. XIV.

Of that which the Bees do at all Times , and what the P erf on
that has the Care of them ought to do.

HERE follows next the care that is to be taken of them through
the whole year, as the fame Hyginus has defcribed it, in a very
eafy and agreeable manner. From the firft equinox, which happens
about the twenty-fourth of March (1), in the eighth part of Aries ,
to the riling of the Pleiades (2), there are reckoned forty-eight days
of fpring-time. He fays, that the bees ought to be cured, for the
firft time, by opening their hives,, that all the filth and naflinefs,
which has been gathered during the winter, may be taken out of
them ; and that after the fpiders, which fpoil the honey-combs, are
pulled out, the fmoak, made by kindling of ox’s dung, may be con¬
veyed into them ; . for this fmoak, from a certain cognation or fame-
nefs of parentage and extraction as it were, is very fuitable and proper
for bees. The little worms alfo, which ate called moths , and the
butterflies, muft be killed : which peffs, adhering for the moft part
to the honey-combs, fall down from them, if you mix ox’s marrow
with the dung, and, having fet them on fire, convey their burning
fmell to them : by this management, during the time which we have
mentioned, the l'warms will be ftrengthened, and they will, witli
more courage and refolution, apply themfelves to their bufinefs, and
carry on. their works.

(1) Although Columella was very well acquainted with the exaft times of the riling
and letting of the ftars, and of the equinoxes and folftices, &c. yet, as he himlclf de¬
clares in this chapter, he rather chofe to follow the commonly received opinions, with
which Hutbandmen had been long acquainted, than to difturb them with new compu¬
tation5 : fo that no perfon need be offended, when they hear him fpeaking of the Sun’s
entering into fuch and fuch ligns, and of the equinoxes and folftices falling upon fuch
and fuch days, when they really do not happen, lince he only accommodated hitnfelf to
the common way of reckoning at the time he wrote. Thus, in this chapter he fays,
that the firft equinox, that is, the vernal , falls about the 24th of March • whereas, ac¬
cording to the compu.ations of the belt aftronomers, it happens about the 10th day of
the faid month, old ftile.

(2) Pleiades. The clufter of feven fmall ftars, in the neck of the Bull, are ufually
thus called. Some fay they are thus called, becaufe formerly they thought, that, when
they began to rife, they mi 'ht fafely go to Tea : others affign different reafons of their
name, which do not feem to be well founded. They Were by the Romans called ver-
lilitO) becaufe they rife in the fpring.

But

40 B L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

Bat he who has the charge of them, and who nouriiffies the bees,
mult be exceeding careful, when he is going to handle the hives, that
the day before he be chafte, and pure from all venereal affairs; and,
that he neither come to them when he is drunk, nor till fuch time as
he has wafhed himfelf ; and that he abftain almoft from all eatables
of a ftrong difagreeable fmell, fuch as falt-nfh or flefh, and all man¬
ner of pickle or gravy belonging to them : as alfo from garlick,
onions, and other fuch-like things, of {linking, acrimonious qualities.
On the forty-eighth day from the vernal equinox, when the Pleiades
arife about the eighth day of May, the fwarms begin to increafe,
both in flrength and number : but, on the fame days alfo, fuch
fwarms as have few and fick bees utterly *perifh ; and, at the fame'
time, are generated, in the extremities of the honey-combs, young
ones of a larger fize than thofe of other bees are ; and fome think,
that they are Kings. But fome of the Greeks call them oT^pm (3), be-
caufe they vex and moiefl the fwarms, and do not fuffer them to
reft: therefore they command them to be killed.

From the riling of the Pleiades to the folftice, which falls in the
latter end of the month of 'June , about the eighth part of Cancer (4),
for the mod part, the hives begin to fwarm ; at which time they
ought to be watched very narrowly, left the young offspring make
their efcape : and then, from the time that the folftice is paft, till the
rifing of the Dog-Jlar (5), which are almoft thirty days, the corns
and the honey-combs are cut down together. But, after what man¬
ner thefe ought to be taken away, we fhall afterwards direct, when
we come to give directions concerning the making of honey.

But Democritus , and Mago, and Virgil alfo, have reported, that
bees may, at this fame time, be generated or produced from a flain bul¬
lock. Mago indeed affirms, that the fame may be alfo done from the
bellies of oxen ; which method of production I think it needlefs to pro-

(3) oTrp^, oejlrus, a gad-bee, or a horfe- or ox-fly, by Homer called ctio\&
perhaps from its fpots. Columella does not mean, that thefe larger bees, which are gene¬
rated in the extremities of the honey-combs, are properly gad-bees; but that they were
fo called, becaufe of their mifchievous qualities of tormenting the bees, as the gad-bees
do oxen.

(4) The Sun enters the tropic of Caoicer about the nth of June , being- then arrived
at his utmoft northern declination, making the longeft day, and the fhorteft night, in
north latitude; and then is the fummer folftice, when the Sun appears to flop his courfe
northward, and returns back again towards the equator.

(5) Canicula , the Dog-ftar, is a bright ftar of the firft magnitude, in the mouth of Cams
major ; which, as fome fay, rifing with the Sun about the 24'h of July, and fetting
about the 28th of Augufi, gives occafion to that time, which is ufually very hot and
dry, to be called the Canicular , or Dog-days. This ftar was by the Greeks called Sirius ,
becaufe of its fcorching and drying influence.

6

fecute

Chap. XIV. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 409

fecute more carefully, being of the fame mind with Celfus , who fays
very prudently, that this fort of cattle is never loft with fo great a
deftrudtion, as to make it necelfary to feek to recover them in fucli
a manner. But during this time, and always till the autumnal equi¬
nox, the hives muft be opened, and fumigated, every tenth day ;
which, tho’ it be troublefome to the hives, yet it is agreed, that it is
exceeding wholfome. Then you muft cool and refrelh the bees after
they have been fumigated, and are all in an heat, by fprinkling the
empty parts of the hives, and pouring tlie coldeft new-drawn water
into them : then, if there be any thing that cannot be wafhed away,
it muft be cleaned with the pinions of an eagle, or of any other huge
fowl alfo, which have a ftiffnefs in them.

Moreover you muft take care, that, if any moths appear, they be
fwept out of the hives ; and that the butterflies be killed, which
commonly, abiding among the hives, are deftrudtive to the bees : for
they both gnaw into and confume the wax, and with their dung
breed worms, which we call hive-moths. Therefore, at the time
when the mallows blofl'om, when there is the greateft multitude of
thefe butterflies, if an high brazen veftel, with a narrow neck like the
mile-column (6), be placed in the evening among the bee-hives, and
fome light put down to the bottom of it, the butterflies gather to¬
gether to it from all places j and, while they flutter about the fmall
flame, they are fcorched, becaufe they can neither fly eafily upward
out of the narrow place, nor, on the other hand, can they retire at
a greater diftance from the fire, fince they are furrounded by the lides
of the brazen veftel : therefore they are con fumed by the burning
heat that is near them. Almoft after the fiftieth day from the riling
of the Dog-ftar, ArElurus rifeth (7), when the bees make their honeys
from the dewy flowers of thyme, and Italian and Greek favory j and
this honey, which is of the beft fort, appears in all its luftre and
beauty at the autumnal equinox, which is before the firft of Oliober ,
when the Sun is juft arrived at the eighth part of Libra \ But great
care muft be taken, between the riling of the Dog-ftar, and that of

(6) Simile miliario. It is manifeft from Pallafius, lib. v. tit. 8. that this veftel wa*
high and narrow, fuch as they ufed in baths for warming water; but what the author
means by directing it to be made fmile milimrio, is not fo eafy to determine. It is pro¬
bable he means, that it fhould be fhaped like the ftones which marked the miles, which
were long and narrow towards the top, or like the column which was ere&ed in the
forum , to mark the place from whence they began to count their miles : other reafons
are aftigned, which are not fatisfying.

(7) Arfturut, a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, placed in the skirt, or, as others er-
prefs it, between the knees, of Arflopbylax , a conftellation in the northern hcmifphere,
otherwife called Bootet.

G g g Ar£iurust

4io L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

ArSlurus, that the bees be not furprifed and intercepted by the fury
and violence of wafps, which, for the moft part, lie in wait before
the doors of the hives, and watch for their coming out.

After the rifing of ArSlurus, about the time of the equinox, when
the Sun is in Libra , (as I faid) is the fecond taking out of the honey¬
combs. Then from the time of the equinox, which falls about the
twenty-fourth of September, to the fetting of the Pleiades , for the
fpace of forty days, the bees lay up for their winter provifion the
honeys they have gathered from tamarilk-flowers, and ftirubs which
grow in thickets and woods ; from which nothing at all muft be taken
away, left, being difheartened by repeated injuries, they fhould, through
defpair, as it were, of retrieving their affairs, run away, and forfake
all.

From the fetting of the Pleiades to the winter folftice, which hap¬
pens almoft about the twenty-third of December , in the eighth part of
Capricorn (8), the hives then make ufe of the honey which they laid
up in ftore, and with it they are nourifhed and fupported till the
riling of Ar Slur us. Nor am I ignorant of Hipparchus's, computation,
which teaches, that the folftices and the equinoxes do not happen in
the eighth, but in the firft parts of the figns. But, in this rural dis¬
cipline, I now follow the calendars of Eudoxus and Meton (9), and
thofe of the antient Aftronomers, which are adapted to the public
facrifices ; becaufe Hufbandmen are both better acquainted with that
old opinion which has been commonly entertained : nor, yet, is the
nicenefs and exadtnefs of Hipparchus neceflary, to the groffer appre-
henfions, and fcanty learning, of Hufbandmen. Therefore, at the
firft fetting of the Pleiades , it will be proper to open the hives pre-
fently, and to cleanfe them from all manner of filth and uncleannefs,
and to cure them the more carefully, becaufe in the winter-time it is
not expedient to move, or lay open, the vafes : for which reafon,
while there is yet any part of the autumn remaining, after you have
cleanfed their domicils in a very bright fun-fhining day, the covers
muft be put in the infide, clofe to the honey-combs, all the empty
part of their feat being excluded, that fo, their cages being reduced to
a narrower compafs, they may the more eafily gather heat during the

(3) The San makes his entrance into Capricorn the nth of December , and then is the
winter folftice, when he is got fartheft from the equator ; and, in northern regions, the
nights are at the longeft, and the days at the fhorteft.

(9) Eudoxus and Meton-, both mentioned in the preface to the firft book; and Hip¬
parchus, in the firft chapter of the firft book : this laft was of Nicea in Bithynia, accoid-
ing to Suidas, and the moft renowned Aftronomer of his age: he flourifhed about 120
years before the Chriftian aera.

winter.

Chap. XIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 4n

winter. And this mull always be done, even in thofe hives, which,
by reafon of the fewnels of the common people, are but thinly in¬
habited.

Moreover, whatever chinks or holes there are in them, we mull
dawb them on the outfide with clay and ox’s dung mixed together,
and leave nothing but the entries for them to go out and come in by.
And, altho’ the vafes be protected by a portico, neverthelefs we mull
cover them over with ftraw and leaves put clofe together, and fecure
them from cold and llorms, as much as the thing will bear. Some
kill fowls, and, after they have taken out their entrails, fhut them up
in the hives ; and they afford a gentle heat to the bees, which lurk
in their feathers in the winter-time : as alfo, if their provifions are
fpent, they feed commodioufly upon them when they are hungry,
and leave nothing but their bones. But, if the honey-combs arc
fufficient for them, the fowls remain intire j nor do they offend
the bees with their fmell, altho’ they love cleanlinefs exceed¬
ingly. Neverthelefs we think it better, in the winter-time, when
they are in diftrefs with hunger, to give them, in little troughs at the
very entry of their hives, either dry figs bruifed and moiftened in
water, or rob of grapes, {mujl boiled in to a third part ) or raifin
wine \ with which liquors you mull moiften and imbue clean wool,
that the bees, handing upon it, may draw up the juice, as it were,
through a fiphon. It will alfo be very proper to give them raifins of
the fun, fprinkled a little with water, after we have broken them.
And with thefe forts of food they mull be fupported, not only in
winter, but alfo at fuch times (as I faid before) as the fpurge, and
alfo the elm-trees, bloffom.

After the fhortefl day of winter is pah, they confume almoll, in
forty days, all the honey that was laid up in flore for them (unlefs a
more liberal allowance was left them by their Overfeer) ; and oft-
times alfo, after they have emptied their wax- works, they lie in the
honey-combs faffing, and benumbed, without motion, in the manner
of ferpents, till the riling of ArBuruSy which is about the thirteenth
of February , and by their reft preferve their life : neverthelefs, that
they may not lofe it, if a longer famine aftaults them, it is bell to
put into the hives, through the entrance of the porch, fweet juices
or gellies in tubes, and fo fuftain them during the fcarcity of the
times, till the riling of ArBuruSy and the coming of the fwallow, pro-
mife that the enfuing weather will be more favourable. Therefore
after that time, when the chearfulnefs of the day permits, they have
the courage to go out to the paftures : for after the vernal Equinox,

G g g 2 without

412 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book IX.

without any delay, they wander up and down every- where, and pluck
the fk>\vers that are fit for the produdlibn of their young ones, and
carry them home to their houfes.

Thefe things Hyginus commands to be mod carefully obferved
through all the feal'ons of the year : but CelJ'us adds to them the fol¬
lowing things, that few places have the happinefs of being in a condi¬
tion to afford one fort of food for bees in winter, and another in fummer ;
therefore he denies, that, in thofe places where flowers, that are proper
for them, fail, after the fpring of the year is part, the hives ought to be
left without moving them ; but that, after the vernal paftures are con-
fumed, they ought to be tranflated into thofe places which can nourifh
the bees more liberally with the lateward flowers of thyme, baffard
marjoram, and Greek favory, which, he fays, is p radii fed both in the
regions of Achaia , where they are tranflated into the Attican paftures,
and in Eubcea (io), and the Cyclad iflands, where they are tranfported
out of the other iflands into Scyrus, as alfo in Sicily, when they are
brought to Hybla out of other parts of the country. The fame author
fays, that the wax-works are make of flowers, and the honey of the
morning dew, which affumes fo much the better quality, the fweeter
the materials are, of which the wax is compounded. But he diredts
us to look carefully into the hives, before they are removed from one
place to another • and to take out the honey-combs that are old, and
full of moths, and ready to drop down ; and to referve only a few of
them, and of the beft fort, that fo as many of them as can be, may
be made, at the fame time, of the beft flowers j and that fuch vafes^
as any one has a mind to remove, be carried only in the night-time,
and without ftiaking them.

CHAP. XV.

Of the Making of Honey , and of the Time when the Hives

ought to be caflrated .

PRefently after the fpring is paft, follows, as I faid, the time for
gathering in and making the honey ; for which the labour of
the whole year is employed. We underhand, that the honey is ripe

(io) Euboea, now called by many wrirers Negroponte, an ifland upon the coaft of
Achaia ; and Scyros, an ifland in the JEgteanfe a, about 28 miles diftant from it and the
Cydad iflands, in the fame Tea, have been already mentioned.

for

Chap. XV. Of HUSBANDRY. 4.13

for gathering, when we obferve the bees expelling and driving away
the drones, which is a kind of animal of a larger growth, and very
like a bee, and, as Virgil fays, an idle JluggiJh cattle , and, that lits
conftantly by the honey-combs, without any induftry : for they do
not gather any provifions themfelves, and confume thofe that are
brought in by others. Neverthelefs thefe drones feem to contribute
fomething towards the procreation of the young generation, they fit¬
ting upon thofe feeds, of which the bees are formed : therefore they
are admitted into greater familiarity, in order to hatch, cherifh, and
educate the new offspring ; but, after the young bees are hatched,
they are thruff out of the houfes by force, and, as the fame poet
fays, driven from the mangers . Some order them to be intirely ex¬
terminated ; but I am of Mago' s opinion, and think that this ought
not to be done, but that bounds ought to be fet to cruelty j for the
whole race ought not to be utterly deftroyed, left the bees be in¬
fected with lloth and idlenefs, which, when the drones confume a
part of their provifions, become more nimble and adtive in repairing
their Ioffes : nor, on the other hand, muff we luffer a multitude of
robbers to grow ftrong, and form themfelves into a body, left they
pillage and deftroy all the wealth and riches belonging to others.
Therefore, when you fee the bees and the drones frequently quarrel¬
ling with one another, you muff open the hives, and look into them,
that if the honey-combs be half-full, they may be deferred, and let
alone, for fome time ; or, if they are already full of liquor, and all
daubed over with wax, as it were, with covers placed upon them,
they may be cut down.

But we muff feize upon almoft the. morning of the day for caff ra¬
ting the hives ; for, it is not proper that the bees, which are already
exafperated, fhould be provoked in the middle of the heat of the
day. Two iron-tools are neceffary for this ufe, made of the meafure
of one foot and an half, or a little larger ; of which, let one be an
oblong knife, with a broad edge on both lides, having a crooked
feraper or bill for paring on one fide ; let the other be plain, and very
(harp on the forepart ; that by this the honey-combs may be the
better cut down, and by that other feraped off' ; and whatever filth
falls down from them, may be drawn towards you : but where the
bee-hive has no open porch on the backfide, we muff convey into it
fmoak made with galbanum, or dry dung. Moreover, thefe you muff
put up into an earthen vefiel, mixed with live-coals ; and this vefiel is
made with handles, and fhaped like a ftrait narrow pot, fo as one
part of it may be (harper, or draw towards a point, by which the

finoali

414. L. J, M. COLUMELLA Book IX.

fmoak may iflue out at a fmall hole ; the other part broader, and with
a wide mouth, by which the coals may be blown. When fuch a
pot is applied to the hive, by blowing into it, the fmoak is conveyed
to the bees, which, not being able to endure the burning fmell, pre-
fently betake themfelves to the forepart of their domicil, and fome-
tires retire without the porch.

And, when you have made way for looking more freely into the
hives, if there be two lwarms of bees, for the moft part there are
alfo two kinds of honey-combs found in them ; for, even when they
live in concord together, each commonalty obferves its own cuflom
and manner of thaping and fafhioning their wax-works. But all
honey-combs do always hang down from the roofs of the hives, and
adhering a very little to the fides, fo as not to touch the bottom, be-
caufe that affords a way for the fwarms to go and come by. But the
figure of the wax-works is fuch as the fhape or make of the hive is j
for both the fquare and round fpaces, and alfo fuch as are long, give
their own fhape, as if they were certain moulds, to the honey-combs ;
therefore the honey-combs are not always found of the fame figure.
But, whatever form they may be of, let them not be all taken out :
for, at the gathering of the firfl crop, while the fields do yet abound
in pafture, the fifth part of them muft be left ; and, at the latter
crop, when now we are under apprehenfions of the winter, the third
part muff be left. And, yet, this is not a certain meafure in all
countries j becaufe due regard muft be had for the bees, and provifion
left for them, in proportion to the multitude of flowers, and the
plenty of food, they have. But, if the dependent wax-works run
out in length, the honey-combs muft be cut with that iron-tool, which
is like to a knife ; and then they muft be received by putting your
two arms under them, and fo brought out : but, if they run crofs-
wife, and flick to the roofs of the hives, then there is occafion for the
iron-tool, made with the paring-knife on the fide of it, that, thruft-
ing it into them, they may be cut down with the forepart of the tool
turned towards you. But fuch of them as are old, or fpoiled, ought
to be taken out, and thofe that are the founded, and full of honey,
left j and, finally, if there be any of them that contain young bees,
that they be referved, in order to form a new fwarm.

Then your whole ftore of honey-combs muft be brought together
into that place, wherein you refolve to make the honey ; and the
holes of the walls and windows muft be carefully daubed over, and
filled up, that there may be no place for the bees to pafs through,
which eagerly fearch after their loft goods, as it were, and, having
4 traced

Chap. XVI. Of HUSBANDRY. 4i5

traced them, and found them out, confume them : therefore a fmoak
muft be made, of the fame materials, in the entrance of the place
alfo, which may repell fuch of them as attempt to come in. Then,
if any of the hives, that are caftrated, fhall have honey-combs that lie
crofs the entry, they muff be turned, that fo the hinder-parts may,
by turns, becomes the porches or entries : for fo the next time they
are caftrated, the old honey-combs fhall rather be taken away than
the new, and the wax-works will be renewed, which by how much
the older, by fo much the worfe they are. But if peradventure the
hives are furrounded, and inclofed with a wall, and are immoveable,
we mu ft take care, that they be caftrated at one time in the hinder-
part, and in the forepart at another time : and this ought to be done
before the fifth hour of the day, and then repeated, either after the
ninth hour, or the morning following.

But how many honey-combs foever are cut down, it is proper to
make the honey the fame day, while they are warm. A willow
baiket, or a fack woven pretty thin with ofiers, like an inverted cone,
fuch as that wherewith wine is racked or ftrained, is hung up in a
dark place ; then the honey-combs are gathered into it one by one, as
they are taken out. But care muft be taken, that thofe parts of their
wax-works, which either have young bees, or red fordid matter in
them, be feparated from them : for they are of a bad tafte, and fpoil
the honey with their juice. Then, when the ftrained honey has
flowed into a tub fet under it to receive it, it is transferred into earthen
veflels, which are left open for a few days, till the new honey leave
off fermenting; and it muft be frequently lcummed with a ladle or
fcummer. Then prefently afterwards the fragments of honey-combs,
which have remained in the fack, are dreffed and handled afrefh, and
the juice fqueezed out of them ; and the honey that flows from
them is of a fecondary fort, and, by perfons that are more exadt and
careful in their affairs, is laid up apart by itfelf, left that which is of
the moft exquilite tafte, by adding this to it, thould become worfe.

CHAP. XVI.

Of the Making of Wax,

THE crop of wax, tho’ it amounts to very little money, is
neverthelefs not to be negledted, inafmuch as the ufe of it is
neceffary for many things. The remains of the honey-combs, when

the

4 1 6 L. j. M. COLUMELLA, Book IX.

the honey is fqueezed out of them, after they are carefully wafhed
with fweet water, are thrown all together into a brazen vefiel : then
water being put to them, they are melted upon a good fire : and,
when this is done, the wax is poured out, and ftrained through ftraw
or rufhes, and then boiled over-again in the fame manner as before,
and poured out into fuch moulds as every one thinks moft proper,
water being firlt put into them : and it is eafy to take it out of the
moulds after it is congealed and hardened, becaufe the moifture that
is under it does not fuffer it to flick to the moulds. But now having
finifhed my diflertation upon cattle, that are kept in or about the
manor-houfe, and the feveral ways of pafturing the fame, that part
of Hulbandry, which yet remains to be treated of, viz. the culture
of gardens , I (hall next put into verfe, as both you, Publius Silvinus3
and our friend Gallio , have been pleafed to require.

L. JUNIUS

[ 4i7 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERALUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK TENTH.

Of the Culture of Gardens .

The PREFACE.

REceive, O Silvinus , the remaining fmall payment of your ufury,
which you demanded, and 1 engaged to pay you : for, with
the nine former books I payed what I owed, except this part only,
which I now fully pay. There remains, therefore, the culture of
gardens, notably neglected formerly by antient Hufbandmen, but now
in very great requeft. Tho’ it is true, indeed, that, among the an-
tients, there was greater parfimony and frugality, neverthelefs the
poor were wont to fare better, and to be frequently admitted to public
feafts ; the higheft and the lowed: fuftaining themfelves with, and living
upon, plenty of milk, venifon, and flefh of tame cattle alfo, juft in
the fame manner as they did upon corn and water : but afterwards,
when the following age, and efpecially our own, did fet a mighty
value upon dainty difhes, invented for promoting luft and wanton-
nefs, and fuppers were eftimated, not by mens natural wants and ne-
cefiities, but by the value of their eftates, and yearly income, Ple¬
beian poverty was removed from the more coftly and delicate viands,
and forced to betake itfelf to common and ordinary fare.

Wherefore we muft be more careful and diligent, than our anceftors
were, in delivering precepts and directions for the cultivation of
gardens, becaufe the fruit of them is now more in life ; and I would
have fubjoined them in profe to the preceding books, as I had refolv-
ed, unlefs your frequent and earned demand had overcome my pur-

id h h pofe,

4i8 L.J. M.COLUMELLA BookX.

pofe, and prevailed with me to fill up, with poetical numbers, thofe
parts of the Georgic poem, which were omitted, and which even
Virgil himfelf intimated, that he left to be treated of by thofe that fhould
come after him. And, indeed, we would not have dared to attempt
that any otherwife, but at the defire and command of that poet, who
is worthy of the greateft veneration and honour, by whofe divine in-
ftigation and authority, as it were, ((lowly without doubt, becaufe of.
the difficulty of the work, neverthelefs not without hope of pro-
fperous fuccefs) we have undertaken a very (lender and lean fubjed:,
and almoft intirely deftitute of a body, which is fo very fmall and in-
confiderable, that, in the confummation indeed of the whole work,
it may be reckoned and confidered as a particle of our labour ; but by
itfelf, and confined, as it were, within its own bounds, it can by no
means be put into fuch a drefs, as to make any graceful appearance.
For altho’ it has many members, as it were, of which we may be
able to fay fomething ; neverthelefs they are fo very fmall, that (as
the Greeks fay) of the incomprehenfible Jmalnefs of Jan d a rope cannot
be made (i). Wherefore, whatever it is that our elucubrations have
produced upon this fubjedt, it is fo far from laying claim to any com¬
mendations peculiar to itfelf, that it will be very well fatisfied, if it
be no difgrace to the things which I have formerly written and pub-
liffied. But now let us leave off prefacing.

HPHEE likewife, O Silvinus, I will teach

The culture of thy gardens, and thofe things
Which Virgil (2), in too narrow bounds confin’d,

Unfinifh’d left, by us to be fupply’d ;

5 When of the fruitful fields, the plenteous crops,

The gifts of Bacchus , and celeftial honey,

And, O great Pales ! thee, likewife, he fung :

Firft, to thy num’rous garden (3 ) let fat land

(1) This Greek proverb) eryjunov 'eshAY.zii, you plait a rope of Jancl , is applica¬

ble to fuch as undertake impoffibilities.

(2) Virgil , in his 4th bock of Georgies , /. 146. fays, that, if he had had time, he
would have fung alfo of gardening, of which he has given a moft beautiful sketch, and
touched a little upon the pleafures and advantages of it in his defeription of the Corycian
old man ; which fhews how lovely a performance if would have been, if he had pur-
iued it; but he left it to the care of future poets. Colutnella , his great admirer, in obe¬
dience to him, as he fays, attempted it. How far he has fucceedcd, or whether, in any
part of his performance, he has come up to the beauty of Virgil’s lliort sketch, all they
who underftand the original will judge for themfelves.

(3) Nutnerofo horto. This epithet is given to the garden, becaufe of the vaft variety
of plants, Ihrubs, &c. in it; or it may lignify large and fpacious , with a vaft many beds
and borders.

6 Afford

Book X. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 419

Afford a feat, whofe loofe and crumbling glebe,

10 And open furface, to the piercing fpade

Yields freely ; which, when digg’d, refembles fand.

Fit is the nature of that foil, which grafs
In great abundance brings ; or moift’ned well,

Dwarf-elder’s ruddy berries, bright like gold,

15 Produces : for I neither love the dry,

Nor that where water Magnates, and doth form
A marfh ; and which, of the complaining frog,

The curfes and reproaches ffill endures (4,).

That foil is alfo good, which leavy elms

2e Spontaneous educates, and is made glad

With branches of wild vines, or rough with woods
Of wild pear-tree (y), or with the ftony fruits
Of plum-trees overfpread, or ftrew’d with fruits
Which uncommanded apple-trees produce ;

2y But bears no hellebores, nor galbanum (6),

With noxious juice ; nor yew-tree doth endure,

Nor pungent poifons fweats, altho’ it may

The mournful hemlock (7), and the mandrake’s flow’rs (8),

Produce, whofe root (hews half a man, whofe juice

30 With madnefs ftrikes; it may like wife bring forth
The fennel-giant (9), which to fchool-boys hands
No pity fhews ; and brambles, to the legs

(4) The poet here alludes to the fable of Latona , who transformed the boors into
frogs, becaufe they refufed to let her drink out of a pond of clear water, which they had
cleared of weeds; of which we have an account in Ovid. Metaniorph. fab. 9.

(5) Achrados. Pyri Jilveflris. Columella retains the Greek name and termination.
Dioporides fays, lib. i. that it is a kind of wild pear-tree, whofe fruit ripens very late ;
and that it has a more ftyptic quality than the pear-tree.

(6) Galbanum , a gum that iflues out of a fpecies of fennel-giant. Pliny fays, that the
mountain Amanus in Syria yields it. It is the juice of a ferulaceous tree or plant, and
from the juice dropping out of it (he tree is called fiagotiitis.

(7) Cicuta , hemlock. Pliny , in the book and chapter above-mentioned, fays it was
publica Atbe7iievfium invifa poena ; they put their ftate-prifoners and other criminals fre¬
quently to death with it; for which reafon, I fuppofe, our poet calls it mcejla cicuta.

(8) Mandr agora , a mandrake. Pint. Nat. Hi p. lib. xxv. cap. 13. gives a large de-
feription of it; and altho’ he mentions fome of its hurtful effe&s, yet I don’t obferve,
that he mentions its caufing madnefs ; neither, if I miftake not, does he take any no¬
tice, in deferibing the roots of it, of their refembling the lower parts of the human
body. The ingenious Mr. Miller fays, that all this is fable; tho’ Pliny takes notice of
the danger of taking up its roots. Perhaps it may be either a different herb from what
we call by that name ; or, in very hot countries, it may have different qualities from
what it has here.

(9) Ferula , fennel-giant : the rods of it were the inftruments of fchool-difcipline.

H h h 2 Unkind,

420 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book X.

Unkind, or Chrift's-thorn with (harp prickles arm’d.

Likewife let near this ground Tome rivers flow,

3 y Whofe dreams the hardy gard’ner may attract
To help to quench his garden’s conftant third.

Or let Come gentle fpring into a well
Didil, not funk too deep, led too much toil
The drawer’s panting Tides fhould over-dretch.

40 And let fuch ground with walls, or prickly hedge,

Thick-fet, furrounded be, and well fecur’d j
Not pervious to the cattle, nor the thief.

Search not for gifts of the Dczdalian hand (10),

Nor thofe of Polyclete (11); nor datues carv’d
4y By Pbradmon’s curious art, or Agelad\

But chufe the trunk of fome huge antient tree ;

Rough-hue it, ufe no art; Priapus (12) make
With frightful members, of enormous fize ;

Him, in the middle of thy garden, place,

50 And to him, as its guardian, homage pay,

That with his mondrous parts he may deter

The plund'ring boy ; and with his threat’ning feythe,

The robber from intended rapine keep.

Come now, Pierian Mufes (13), and fpin out,

In

(xo) Daedalus, a famous ftatuary of Sicyon ; he lived in the days of Minos : he was the
inventor of many ufeful thing' in life, as the faw, the ax, the plumbet, the auger, glue,
cement, fails for fhips, &c. Plin. Nat. Hi ft. lib. vii. cap. 5 6. Some fay he was an Athe-
■nian, and the firft ftatuary who feparated the legs of ftatues, they being united and joined
before his time. All curious pieces of workmanlhip are from him called Dedalian j fo
that our author only means curious ftatues, by whatever hand they were made.

( 1 1 ) Polycletus , Phradmon , Agelades , three famous ftatuaries, who flourifhed about
the 87th olympiad. Polycletus was fcholar to Agelades , who, by Paufanias , is called.

both he and Pliny make frequent mention of them, and of many of their

pieces.

(12) The antients put their gardens under the protedion of Priapus , whom they called
the fon of Dionyjius and Venus. He is faid to have been of Lampfacus in the Helle¬
spont^ fo Virgil calls him Priapus Hellefpontiacus : Columella calls him Ithyphallus , ob
pudendi erettam formam. It feems the antients fet him over their gardens as a fymbol
of fruit fulnefs. Both Virgil , Horace, Olid, and Tibullus, make mention of him as the
keeper of gardens, or a fcarecrow to thieves and fowls.

(13) Our author, as all other poets, antient and modern, invokes and implores the
affillance of the Mufes, a fet of fiditious deities, which were called Pierides or Pieri# ,
from mount Pierus in Thejfaly, as Fefus and Cicero fay. Some affirm, that Pieria was a
mountain in Tbracia, where Orpheus lived : others, that it was a mountain in Macedonia,
where the Mufes were born, which mountain, they fay, touched upon Thracia ; and fome
fay, that the foundation of this fidit n was, becaufe Orpheus , the firft wife man, poet, and
divine among the Greeks, went and made his abode in thefe places. Ovid and others

421

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

5 5 In flender verfe, the culture, and the times,

Of fowing every feed ; the care , when fown ;
Beneath what ftar fair flow’rs firft fhew their heads,
And Teftums rofe-beds (14) firfl: begin to bud;.

And Bacchus’’ genuine plants, or other trees,

60 Mild by ingraftment on a borrow’d flock,

Bend with the burden of adopted fruits.

Now, when the thirfty Dog far fhall have drank
Full draughts of Ocean's ftreams ; and when his orb
With equal hours bright Titan fhall have pois’d,

65 And Autumn , glutted with all forts of fruit.

Shaking his hoary head, with apples deck’d,

And all his garments wet and ftain’d with muft,

Shall from ripe grapes the foaming liquor fqueeze ;
Then let the lovely ground, with ftrength of fpades
jo Well arm’d with iron, be turned up-fide-down,

If delv’d before, and moift’ned with the rains.

But if, with burning heat, and fky ferene.

Made hard, it without culture flill remains.

Then let commanded brooks, and cooling fprings,

75 In Hoping paths defcend ; that fo the earth

May drink, and therewith fill her gaping mouth.

But if no moifture from the clouds your fields
Derive, nor in themfelves the fame contain ;

If nature of the place, or heav’n itfelf,

80 With-holds the fhow'rs; then wait till winter come:.
Till in the Tea’s green waves, the fparkling Crown ,
The gift of Bacchus to his Gnojian bride (15),

By turning. of the world’s poles be hid.

give us different reafons why they were fo called : if any have a mind to know their
feveral names and offices, they may confult the Gm^ epigrams, and fome poems attributed
to Virgil , where they may fatisfy themfelves.

(14; Pajlum, a town of Lucaxia in the kingdom of Naples , between Salerno and
Velia. P liny fays, that the Greeks called it Pofdonia, which is the reafon why Velleius
calls it Neptunia : the gulph near it was called Sinus Pajlinus, now called the Gulph of
Salerno. This place was very much celebrated for its rofes, which flourifhed twice a
year, in May and September. Virgil commends biferi rofaria Pajli.

(15) Thefe lines allude to the ftory of Bacchus' marrying Ariadne , daughter of Minos
king of Crete, at Cnoffus in Crete ; and his making her a prefent of a crown, which after¬
wards, to preferve her memory, he tranflated into the heavens, of which was formed a
conftellation, called Corona borealis , or Corona Cnofjia or Gnofia, or Ariadna: Corona , See.

And

422 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A IBook X,

And Atlas loving daughters (i6), flruck with fenr,

85 Shun of the riling fun the adverfe rays.

And now when Phoebus (17) in lome -parts of heav’11
Does not confide, nor think himfelf fecure,

But from the Scorpions claws and deadly fling
Flees trembling, and on Crotus ’ horfe-like back
90 Makes hade the threat’ll ing danger to efcape,

Ye vulgar, unacquainted with your race (18),

Her fpare not, whom, deceiv’d, you falfly call
Your mother ; die, who of Promethean clay
Was form’d, is mother of a diff’rent race,

Not yours: another parent brought us forth.

When unrelenting Neptune with the lea

O’er whelm’d the earth, and fhook the lowed pit

Of hell, and Lethe's dreams with terror flruck.

Then, fird, th’ infernal hods, the Stygian king
100 Saw, with his trembling joints, betray his fear.

When, with the Ocean’s weight, departed fouls
Opprefs’d, complained, and an uproar made.

Us, when this globe of mprtals was bereft,

A fruitful hand did form ; Us ragged rocks,

1 05 Torn by Deucalion’s hands from lofty hills,

Brought forth. But lo ! an harder toil us calls,

'(i<5) Atlantides were the daughters of Atlas, a certain King of Mauritania, as fome
fay, who was a great aftronomer they were fifteen in number, and, as the poet tells us
were tranflated into the heavens, and converted into ftars; and they fanfy, that fome of
them are the clutter of fmall ftars in the neck of the Bull, called Pleiades , which have
been already mentioned ; and that others of them are the five ftars in the Bull’s face,
by the Greek s called Hyades , becaufe they imagined they were the caufe of rain : thefe,
by the Romans, were called Sucula, from a wrong interpretation of the Greek name
they being, at that time, it feems, very little acquainted either with the Greek learning
or language.

(17) Here Columella defcribes, poetically enough, the Sun’s retiring from the fign Scor¬
pio to that of Sagittarius , in the month of November ; and, becaufe of the fhortening of
the day, he is faid to fly away upon the back of Crotus , who, as the mythologifts fay,
was transformed into this conftellation at the prayer of the MuJ'es, with whom he had
lived familiarly, being fon to their nurfe Euphemes. They paint him half a man, and
half .an horfe; and put a bow and arrow into his hands, he being an excellent hunter and
archer.

(18) Here the poet addrefles himfelf to Husbandmen j and tells them, that they need
not be afraid to dig the earth, from a vain apprehenfion of tearing out their mother’s
bowels ; for, fays he, you are not of that race of mankind which Prometheus formed of
clay ; thefe all perifhed by Deucalion's flood ; you are of another race of mortals ,• you
were not formed out of the earth, but made of ftones, which Deucalion and Pyrrha
threw behind their back.

A

423

Book X. G/HUSBANDR Y.

A never-ceafing labour : roufe, awake.

Ye drowfy fluggards, rife, drive fleep away,

Now come, and with the plough-fhare’s crooked tooth
i io Her green hairs tear, now her green garments cut;

With pond’rous rakes pierce her unyielding back j
And fear not, with large mattocks, to pull out
Her entrails, and them mix with th’ upmoft turf,

And place them to be pinched with hoar-frofts,

1 1 y To frozen fcourges, and the wrath expos’d

Of north- weft winds ; and let the fierce north wind
Them bind, and let the eaftern wind unbind.

But, as foon as white Zephyr (19), with his gale
Warm’d with the Sun, the numbing colds and frofts
120 Of the Riphcean winter (20) fliall have thaw’d;

And Orpheus’ Lyre (1) fhall from the ftarry pole
Retire, and plunge itfelf into the deep ;

And fwallows (2) in their nefts the fpring’s advent
Shall chant ; then let the Kitchen-gard’ner bring
I2y Himfelf full bafkets yielding with the weight,

And with fat rubbifh, or the folid dung
Of afles, or with that of other herds.

Feed to the full the hungry fafting ground.

Nor let him fhew reluctance to prefent
130 As food to weary fallow ground, whate’er,

The privy vomit from its dirty finks.

(19) That wind, which the Greeks called Zephyrus , bccaufe of its animating influ¬
ence, was by the Homans called Favonius , both names denoting the gentlenefs of the
weather, when the gentle weftern bree7.es began to blow, whereby all things were en¬
livened and cherifhed. Pliny lays, that this wind blows from that place in the heavens
where the Sun fees at the time of the equinox ; that it begins the fpring, opens the earth, and is
very wholfome with its gentle cold, lib. xviii. 34. Our author fays, lib. viii. 11. that they
begin to blow about the 5th of February ; and Varro , before the 7th day of the faid
month; and Pliny fays they begin to blow commonly about the 8th.

(20) Hiphtta bruma. The Hiphaan mountains are in the northern parts of Mufcovy ,
out of which the river Tanais , now called the Don , arifeth, and empties itfelf into the
Palus Maotis. In thefe mountains the colds in winter are exceeding fevere.

(1) Orphei Lyra. The Harp is a conftellation in the northern hemifphere. The poets
feign, that it was placed in the heavens in honour of Orplicus , who was, as fome fay,
fon of one of the Mufes. Varro , lib. ii. cap. 7. fays, that what the Greeks called ao £jf,
was by the Homans called F idis. Our author fays it begins to let the firft of February.
The brighteft ftar in the conftellation was by the Homans called Fidicula: but Pliny, if
I miftake not, calls always the whole conftellation by this name : and Columella feerns
to call it fometimes Fidis, fometimes Fidicula.

(2) Hirundo cantdrit. Pliny fays, that fwallows are fecn the 22d of February ; and
Columella , on the 23d of the faid month.

Now

+2+

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book X.

Now let him with the (harp point of the hoe
Attack again the furface of the ground
Condens’d with rains, and hard’ned with hoar frofts :
iiy Soon after with the tufk of rake or fpade

The green turf’s lively herbage let him bruife,

And mix well with the clods ; that of the field,

Nowt ripe for plants, and feeds, the nurfing breafls
May be unbound, and [nourijhment convey ].

140 Then let him alfo take the glitt’ring fpade,

Worn with the greund, and from each adverfe bound,

Straight narrow furrows draw, from fide to fide,

And then obliquely with fmall paths divide.

Now, when the well-comb’d earth her filthy garb
145 Puts off, and in gay drefs, and well-fet hair.

Appears, and her own plants and feeds demands,

Then plant the various flow’rs, thofe earthly ftars,

White gillijlowrs , and the bright-yellow eyes
Of marigold^ and fair NarciJJ'us hairs (3),

?50 The ftern and furious lion s gaping month (4),

And lilies, which in bafkets long preferve
Their verdure; and the hyacinth, white as fnow,

Or blue ; then let the beauteous violet
Be planted, which, with purple and with gold
iyy Richly adorn’d, its boughs and leaves extends.

And that which creeps pale-colour’d on the ground ;

The rofe likewife, too full of modeft blufh.

Now fcatter all-heal , with its healing tear,

And horned poppies, with their wholfome juice,

160 And poppies which bind faff efcaping fleep.

' From Megaris now let the genial feeds

Of bulbs (y) be brought, which fharpen mens defires,

And put young modeft ladies on their guard.

And

(3) Ftarcijji comas , daffadil. The poet tells us, that a certain beautiful boy, feeing
himfelf in a fountain, fell in love with his own image, and, pining away, died ; and was
changed into a flower of that name.

(4) Hiantis fer a leonis. I have not found out the name of this flower, which, when
it opens, refembles the gaping mouth of a lion.

(5) Bulbi. Pliny , Cato , and feveral other antient authors, make great account of
bulbs, which, in their days, were fo common, that, as father Hardouin obferves, they
thought it needlefs to mention their names; and that now they are fo much in difufe,
that we fcarceiy have any knowledge of thofe which the antietits valued moil Pliny
reckons the fcilla or fyuilla, the fea-onion, as the French call it, among the firft ; and
mentions a few others with Greek names, which I believe few at prefent know what

they

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY. 3.25.

And fiich as Sicca (6) gathers, and finds hid
1 by Below Getulian (7) clods j and rocket (8) Town
Near to Priapus , crown’d with ears of corn,

That flow and drowfy hufbands it may roufe.

Small lettice now is Town, which, full of leaves,

With tender fibres grows ; and fliort chervil,

170 And endives , which the blunted palate pleafe :

And garlicks, fmall and great (9), which far and wide
From their divided cloves diftufe their fmell;

And herbs they mix with beans for vulgar fare (10).

Now is the time for Jkirivort , and that root
1 75 Which comes of Syrian feed (1 1), which flic’d is given

they are. Thofe of Megara , a city of Achaia , between Athens and Corinth , are mod
commended!; they were, it feems, great provocatives, and as fuch are taken notice of by
Petronius , Martial , Ovid, and others ; and as fuch our author mentions them.

(6) Sicca, an inland town, and a colony in Numidia , as Pliny fays, lib. v. c. 3. Some
authors call it Veneria.

(7) Gatuli. The Getulians were a very numerous people of Africa. Pliny mentions
them as inhabiting many different places thereof, and diflinguifhes them by feveral names,
as Gatuli Autolotes , Gatuli Darse, &c. He places fome of them in Mauritania Ccefa-
rienfis. Ptolemy places them in Inner Libya. Some authors place them between Car¬
thage and Numidia. It is probable, that, being a numerous people, they fent fome of
their number into different places.

(8) Pocket , a very hot herb, good for generation, as Pliny and feveral others affirm,
it being a great provocative to venery ; which the author infinuates by faying, it is fown
near to Priapus.

(9) Ulpicum , a larger fort of garlick: I have not found it under this name, in fuch of
our botanifts as I have looked into. Columella fays, lib. xi. c. 3. that fome call it Punic
garlick , but the Greeks call it Aphrofcorodon ; and that it is of a much greater growth
than common garlick. Pliny, lib. xix. c. 6. fays, that the Greeks called it Cyprian gar¬
lick', others Antifcorodon', and that it is much efteemed in Africa, as a principal ingredient
in their delicate falads : that it ought to be farcied or hoed, fmulatque tria folia erupe-
rint , as foon as three blades or leaves ffiall fpring out of it. Columella fays, cum ternas
fibras emiferint fpicce , when its cloves fend forth three fibres; by which we mayobferve,
that Columella means the fame thing by fbra, as Pliny does by folia , viz. the blades, as
he fays, that wheat ought to be farcied cum eft trium fbrarum. I believe it was obferved
before, that father Hardouin underftood this to fignify when it has three fibres at the
root, which, I think, is a miftake. When mixed with oyl and vinegar, it raifeth a fur-
prifingly great froth, as Pliny obferves, which, perhaps, is the reafon why it is called
aphrofcorodon.

(10) Qu<eque fabis habilis fabrilia mifcet. Some authors fay, that they ufed to mix
with beans water-creffes, cat-mint, and mother of thyme, penny- royal, &c. fo that in
this line he comprehends all thefe and other herbs ufualiy mixed with beans, without
naming them, as being very well known : but the general opinion is, that we have not
the true reading of this line ; and the attempts that fome have made to correct it, are
fo different from the text, that it is needlefs to mention them.

(11) Padix qu<e venit AJfyrio femine. What this root is, it is not eafy to determine :
fome fay it was gingidium , toothpick-chervil. Pliny and Diofcorides fay it is like the fla-
phylinus, the wild parfnip, but fmaller and bitterer ; and is eaten both raw and boiled,
ajid is of great benefit to the ftomach.

With

I i i

Book X.

426 L.J.M. COLUMELLA

With moift’ned lupines joined, that it may
Provoke frefh bumpers of Pelufian beer (12).

The low-pried pickles at no other time,

Nor caper-bujh , nor mournful elecampane ,

180 Nor fennel-giant, with its threat ning rods,

Are planted : now the creeping grafs of mint ,

And dill's fweet-fmelling flow’rs, are fcattered ;

And rue (13), which the Palladia n berry s tafte
Excels ; and mujlard, which will force to weep
185 Him that provokes it : now is fet the root
Of AliJ'ander (14), and, which caufeth tears.

The otiion ; and that herb ( 1 y) which feafons milk.

And from the flave’s audacious front removes
The fhameful brand, and tokens of his flight ;

190 And, therefore, by its Greek name it declares
Its virtue j and at this fame time is fown
That herb (16), which o’er the whole terreftrial globe

Doth

(12) Zythuvi , a kind of drink made of barley, firft in ufe among the Egyptians; hence
our author calls ic Pelujiacum Zythum. Some authors fay it was made both of barley and
wheat.

Pelujium , once a city in Egypt , now only a village, called Behais , as fome authors fay,
near the eaftern mouth of the Nile, about 150 mi’es from Alexandria.

(13) But a. Our author fays it excels the tafte of the Palladian berry, meaning the
olive, which was dedicated to Minerva. Some, inftead of vittura, read jutura, to fignify
that rue, joined with oil, improved the tafte thereof.

(14) O/eris pulli radix ; in other places, Columella , as alfo Pliny, call it olus atrum ,
from the blacknefs of its root and feed. The Greeks call it Smyrnium and Hippofelinum.
The EngliJIj writers call it Alexander , which fome think to be a corruption of olus
atrum.

(15) This herb, by the defcription the author gives of it, is lepidium. Pliny fays it is
only ufed with milk. Columella, lib. xii, 8. prefcribes it for making what he calls oxy-
gala , four milk. Pliny, lib. xx. c. 17. fays, that it is placed among the cauftics; that it
removes freckles, cicatrices, and marks upon the face. It Teems that flaves ufed it to re¬
move certain Jligmata or marks their matters put upon them ; which being obferved,
father Hardouin fays, they introduced the cuftom of branding them with a hot iron. It
feems it has its name from tendf, a fpot or mark upon the lace : probably it may be fo
called from xnrllyo, decortico ; for Diofcorides fays, that the leaves of it have an acrimo¬
nious ulcerating quality.

(id) Brajjica: what the Romans underftood by this word, is but imperfectly exprefled
by the word cabbage or colewort. They comprehended a variety of pot-herbs under
this name, of which our author here mentions fifteen different forts, which, no doubt,
v/ere all diftinguifhed by fomething peculiar to each, which I believe is very difficult
now to find out, he mentioning moft of them without any particular defcription. Pliny
indeed gives a pretty diftintft account of a few of them, but takes no notice of feveral
of the forts mentioned here. The Romans were great lovers of thofe kinds of pot-herbs;
and both Cato and Pliny commend them highly for their great ufefulnefs, both for food
and phyfic. What Cato fays is very remarkable, that the Romans made ufe of no other

things

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY. 427

Doth flourifh, and in great abundance yields
To low Plebeian , and the haughty King,

195 In winter, cabbage; and green fprouts, in fpring:

Such as in antient Cuma s turfy lhore (17),

And in Abruzzo (18), and near Segni , grow (19)

On mount Lepinus , and fat Capua s plains (20) :

Such as the gardens in Caudinian (traits (1),

200 And Stabian lands (2), for fountains much renown ’d.

And learned Naples (3), with Sebethis' ftream (4)

Bedew’d,

things for phyfic for fix hundred year?, from the foundation of Rome ; and about that
time Phyficians began to introduce tbemielves among them, very much againft his opi¬
nion, who was a mighty ftickler for their antient plain way of living, which, no doubt,
contributed much to the prefervation of their health ; but, when once luxury got foot¬
ing among them, and they began to loath their former plain diet, their difeafes, no doubt,
varied alfo, and different medicines became neceflary. Both Cato and Pliny mention a
great many cafes, wherein the ufe of brajjtca , differently prepared, was very beneficial;
which is not my bufinefs to trouble the reader with.

(17) Brajjtca Cuniana. Pliny fays, that this kind is of a low ftature, with leaves fitting
upon the ground, and a broad fpreading head; Father Hardouin , from Dodonaus, fays
it was of a red colour, and is what the French call now Chou rouge , red cabbage, ft
feems it was originally of Cuma, once a colony, and a very confiderable town, upon the
fea-fhore in Campania ; the place is now intirely ruinous, the fhore is graffy, and may
very well be called ccfpojum littus ; as it is in our author, tho’ fome editions have it
cepofo, others tepofo : probably the editors thought, that, if the author meant a turfy fhore,
he would have faid cefpitofo ; but this is what they could not be very fure of.

(18) OlA Marrucini pariunt. Thefe people formerly inhabited a part of the kingdom
of Naples , now called Abruzzo , on the coaft of the Adriatic fea. Pomponius , in his
cotes on our author, fays, this fort was fomewhat reddifh with few leaves.

( 1 9) QO.* Vartt Segnia. Segni , a town in Latium , which antiently belonged to the
people called Volfci. It lies about 30 miles eaft of Rome-, it ftands upon the top of
mount Lepinus. This fort, as the forementioned author fays, is fhorter, thicker, and
more favoury, than the others; and they commonly eat them with oil.

(20) Capua, a famous town in Campania in the kingdom of Naples. Some very good
authors, as Livy, Pliny , and others, fay, that it has its name a Campo , from the fpacious
fields where it is fituated ; and it is called pinguis , fat, from their great fertility.

(1) Caudium oppidum, and Furca Caudina-, a very remarkable place, where the Roman
army was furprifed by the Samnites , and made to pafs under the yoke, of which Livy
gives an account in his ixth book. It lies about four miles from Santa Agatha , and
lixteen miles eaft of Capua. Thefe Fauces Caudina ? are now called Stretto d'Arpaia , and
Giogo di Santa Maria ; the village itfelf is called Arpaia. The faid Pomponius fays, that
this fort is the tendered: of any.

(2) Stabia:, a fmall town in Campania, upon the fea-coaft, about 5 miles from the
mouth of the river Samus, which empties itfelf into the gulph of Naples. It is about
10 miles from Surrentum ; the river Samus is now called Scafati.

(3) Doflaque Parthenope. The city of Naples was antiently fo called, as Pliny fays,
bccaufc Parthenope, one of the Sirenes , was buried there. Our author calls it learned,
bccaufe, in his days, probably it was famous for learned men. Pomponius fays, that the
hrajjica of this place was formed like a thyrfus ; by which, I fuppofe, he means, that the
leaves were fo fet upon the ftalk as fomewhat to refemble a fpike, a name given to the
flowers of any herb which are fet fo clofe, and in fuch a manner, as to form an acute

I i i 2 cone ;

Book X«

428 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A

Bedew’d, and the Vefuvian (5) fields, producer
Such as the charming fweet Pompeian marlfh (6),

Near the Plerculean falt-pits (7), does afford ;

205 And Siler (8), which flows down with cryflal ffream :

Thofe which the hardy rough Sabellians (9) give
With fprouty ftalks, and fervile Brutian lands ( 10),

And apple-bearing Pibur , and the lake

Of Purnus (11), and Aricia, mother of leeks (12).

When

cone ; bur, in the thyrfus , the leaves, or flowers, or fruit, are fet more loofely ; fo that
there are fpaces vifibly betwixt them.

(4) Sebethis , a very fmall river hard by Naples, of which the water is conveyed to
moft of the ftreets of that city : the common people call it F ornello ; fome call it the
river della Maddalena : a part of it runs by the walls of the city, and falls into the gulph
near St. Magdalen s bridge.

(5) Vefvia rura , Vefevum, or Vifuvium, a well-known mountain near Naples ; all the
country round it was very delicious, before it was ruined by the eruptions of the vol¬
cano. Pomponius fays, that the brajjica of thefe lands was of a more bitterifh tafte than
that of others, notwithftanding very agreeable to the tafte.

(6) Pompeia palus. Pompeii , or Pompeianum , formerly a confiderable town, but now
ruinous, in Campania , fituated at the mouth of the river Sarnus, upon the gulph of
Naples j it is now called Torre dell’ Annunciata. Pliny fays, that this kind of cabbage
was of a taller fort; that its ftalk was fmall from the root upward, but that it grew
thick amongft the leaves, which were thinner and narrower than thofe of other forts, and
were exceeding tender, which made amends for their not bearing the cold.

(7) Salinis Herculeis. Herculaneum was a town in Campania , upon the gulph of Na¬
ples, where it feems were falt-pits. Some authors fay it is now called Torre di Ripalta ;
others call it Torre del Graco. Pliny, in enumerating the places upon the coaft of this
gulph, mentions it after Naples, and after it he places Pompeianum.

(8) Siler, or, as Pliny calls it, Silarus ; a river, which formerly feparated the Picentini
from the Lucani almoft in the middle, between Salernum and Paijlum , about 12 miles
from each : it emptieth itfelf into the gulph of Salerno, and is now called Selo.

(9) Brajjica SabelUca ; fo called from Sabelli , a rough and hardy people, who dwelt in
the mountains between the Sabini and the Marji. Pliny makes them a colony of the
Samnites ; but Cato, in his Excerpta Orig. fays, that the Sabelli were fo called, becaufe they
were the offspring of the Sabini. Pliny, lib. xix. c. 8. fays, that the leaves of this fort
of cabbage are curled even to admiration, the thicknefs of which extenuated their ftalks ;
they are faid to be the fweeteft of all. Our author fays, they had a fprouty ftalk.

(10) Brutii, a people that inhabited that part of the kingdom of Naples now called
Calabria, which lies partly on the Adriatic, and partly on the Mediterranean feas. Aulus
Gellius , lib. x fays, that they were conquered by the Romans , and reduced to a ftate of
fervitude, becaufe they were the firft who received Hannibal. Pliny fays, their cabbage
was nourifhed by the cold, of exceeding large leaves, fmall ftalks, and of a fliarp and
poignant tafte.

(11) Lacus Turni, or, as Pliny calls it, Lacuturris , from a lake and tower in the
valley of Aricia. This fort of brajjica had a very large head, and numberlefs leaves •
fome of them grew up round, others extended themfelves in breadth. Some think they
are that fort which the French call choux cabus, headed cabbage, becaufe they grew into
the fhape of a man’s head.

(12) Aricia, now called I’Arriccia, a place in Latium, where there was a famous
grove facred to Diana, called Lucus Aricinus, near Veletri. This place was called the

mother

+29

Book X. 0/HU8BANDRY.

2.10 When to the loofe and well-prepared earth

We have committed all thefe feeds and plants (13),

With conftant culture, and unweary ’d care,

While pregnant, we her cherilh, that full crops
With double uf’ry may repay our pains.

2iy Firft, I advife large fountains to convey

Into your garden, left the parching drought
Mar the conception, and burn up the birth.

But, when the pregnant earth her fruitful womb
Does open, and her hidden knots unbinds,

220 And all her florid offspring, unconfin’d,

Breaks forth ; then let the careful Gardner come.

And from his wat’ring-pot, with gentle drops.

Like milling rain, bedew the infant plant,.

And with his forked iron the furface comb,

225 And from the furrows throw the choaking weed.

But if on bufhy hills your garden’s plac’d.

And from the woody tops no gentle flreams
Glide down j then, with the clods of well-trench’d ground.
Together thrown, thy beds and borders raife,

230 That fo the plant may be inur’d to grow

In the dry duff, and, when it changes place,

The dry and fcorching heats it may not dread.

’Soon as the Prince of flocks, and of the figns (14),

Who

mother of le eks ; probably becaufe they were firft cultivated there, and, becaufe of their
excellency and great plenty, they were fent from thence to other countries : they are
much celebrated by many authors, particularly Martial, lib. xiii. epigr. 19. Pliny fays,
that the cabbage of this place did nor grow higher than that of Cuma, whofe leaves fat
upon the ground j that it was reckoned the moft profitable kind, becaufe it put forth
fprouts with little ftalks almoft under all its leaves.

(13) Our author has mentioned feveral forts of brajjtca , which Pliny has taken no
notice of; but he has mentioned fome which are not in our author: and he tells us,
lib. xx. cap. 8. that the antient Greeks divided their brajjtca into three different forts;
•viz. the curled , which they called felinoidea from its likenefs to parfley, which is good
for the ftomach, and fofeens the belly ; the other fmocth, with fmaller leaves growing
out of the ftem ; the third, properly called crarnbe , with fmaller leaves, fingle, and very
thick, bitterer thin the other, but very efficacious. Cato efleemed the curled fort the
beft ; next to h, the fmooth, with great leaves, and a great ftem : fome fay, that the wild
brajjtca is properly the crambe. Some call it brajjtca petrata , becaufe it grows in fteep
rocky places, \v xpe/arwJW/ 7 ootok, as Diofc or ides fays; and from this, they think, it has
its name; which feems too far fetcht. Of all thefe different forts the cymata , i. e. the
fprouts, as Pliny lays, a-e, by all nicer palates, reckoned the fweeteft, and more tender
and delicate than the brajjtca itfelf. They are the fmall ftalks fhooting out of the main
ftem or ftaik.

(14) Here the author alludes to the ftory of Phryxus and Helle , fon and daughter of

Athamas

430 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book X.

Who cloud-born T^hrvxus fafe to harbour brought,

23 y But dropt his lifter Helle in the deep,

Shall from the fwelling waves lift up his head.

The nurfing earth her bofom (hall expand.

And claim the adult feeds, and fhew delire
In wedlock with fet plants herfelf to join :

240 O men ! keep conftant watch, good reafon why'!

With filent pace the feafons fly away,

And without noife the year is turned round.

Behold ! with ardent with, and fond delire,

The moft indulgent mother now demands
245- Her offspring, her own children which Ihe bore.

To nurfe and bring them up with tender care.

The time’s now come, now to the mother’s care
The tender pledges of her love commit :

The parent with her own green offspring crown ;

2yo Adorn her with her hair ; in order fet

Her locks : now likewife let the florid earth
Be curled with green parlley, and made glad
With the green leek’s long and dilhevell’d hair ;

Let the wild parfnip her foft bofom lhade.

2yy Now let fweet-fmelling plants, of foreign lands
The gifts, from the Sicanian (15) hills defcend.

And from mount Hybla s (16) lofty faffron tops.

Athamas King of Theba , by his wife Nephele, who, flying from the fnares of their ftep-
mother Ino, fwam over the fea upon the back of the ram with the golden fleece. Helle
fell into the fea, and was drowned ; from her that fea has fince been called the Hellef.
pont. Phryxus got fafe to Colchos , and facrificed the ram to Mars , and hung up the
golden fleece in his temple, which afterwards became the fubjedt of two noble poems;
the one Greek , the other Latin. Pbryxus is called Nubigena, cloud-born, from his
mother’s name Nephele , which, in Greek , fignifies a cloud. The poet’s intention here is,
only to defcribe the Sun’s entering into the fign Aries, the Ram, which he calls the
Prince of flocks, becaufe of the worth and ufefulnefs of that animal; and the firft of the
flgns, becaufe the antients began their year in the month of March ; and, in enumerate-
ing the figns of the Zodiac, we ftill begin with Aries. The Hellefpont is a narrow
fea by Confl antinople , dividing Europe from Afa: it is narroweft between Sefios , a town
in Thracia in Europe, and Abydos , a town of Phrygia in Eejfer Afa , diftant about feven
or eight furlongs : thefe two places are now called the Dardanelles. Some call the fea
the flraits of Gallipoli , or il braccio di San Georgio.

(15) Sicania , another name for Sicily : a well-known, large and opulent ifland in the
Mediterranean fea, feparated by a very narrow fea, of 1500 paces, from the kingdom of
Naples.

(id) Hybla, a mcuntain in Sicily, famous for honey ; the bees feeding there upon many
odoriferous plants.

4 - From

43*

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

From gay Canopus (17) let fweet marjorams (18) come.

And let fweet cicely from Achaia brought (19),

260 With better juice than the myrrh-tree diftills,

And always imitates thy doleful tears,

O Cinyreian virgin ! and thofe flow’rs
Be planted, which from Ajax ' mournful blood
Arife, who was by partial judges doom’d (20) j
265 And amaranths , which never fade nor die.

And, in due order let the Gard ner place,

In plants, a thoufand various colours, which
Rich nature does bring forth, and which he fow’d
In feed ; now let lea-cabbage alfo come,

270 Tho’, to the eyes a foe, it blunts the light,.

(17) Canopus , a town in Egypt , at the mouth of the Nile. Our author gives it the
epithet of hilaris , chearful ; other authors fay it was much addidted to voluptuoufnefs.
It feems to have given name to one of the mouths of the Nile ; although the learned
father Hardouin fays, in his note on Plin. Hiji. Nat. lib. v. cap. io. that ic is uncertain
whence the Canopic mouth of the river had its name ; whether from a town, or a man,
or fome other thing, Pliny having made no mention of the town. Bur, ic feems pretty
clear, from Pliny s own words, that it had its name from this town : Sunt in honore &
intra decurjus Nils mult a oppida , pracipue qua: vomina dedere ojliis, non omnibus , fed cele-
berrimis feptem, proximo Alexandria Canopica , deinde , <£rc.

(1) Sampfuhum , Amaracus. Pliny , lib. xxi. cap. 12. fays, that Diodes the phyfiician,
and the Sicilians , called that herb amaracus , which the Syrians and Egyptians called fam-
pfuchum. Father Hardouin , in his note on this herb, fays that it is a miftake to think,
that what in the fhops is called majorana , la marjolaine , is the fampfuchum or amaracus
of the ancients ; for this reafon efpecially, becaufe Diofcorides fays, that the fampfuchum
creeps upon the ground, but the mayor ana rifes high ; but Matthiolus thinks, that they
are much the fame : and, if any defire a full defcription of both, they may confulc this
learned author, who has delineated and defcribed them fully, but does not make the
fampfuchum to creep on the ground in father Hardouin’s fenfe : he thinks, that majorana
was fo called, becaufe, being of a very agreeable fmell, it was cultivated by the ladies
with great care, both in the ground, and in earthen pots; and upon no herb greater pains
was bellowed, p. 535.

(19) This herb is called myrrhis , or myrrha , or fmynhisca, as Pliny fays; and, accord¬
ing to him, it is very like hemlock in its llalk, leaves, and flower, but leil'er and fmaller,
not unpleafait to eat. Diofcorides adds, that it has an oblong, foft, round, and fweet-
fmelling root. Mr. Mi'ler calls it fweet cicely ; fome think it to be angelica ; others
chervil ; others laferpitium , or fmyrnium ; the French call it cherfeuil mnfqud.

Myrrha , the daughter ot Cynaras King of Cyprus, was transformed into a tree of that
name, which always fweats out a juice, in memory of the many tears fhe fhed in the
time of her afflidiion. See the fable elegantly told by Ovid , Metamorph. lib. x.

(20) Ajax, a famous Hero in the Grecian expedition againft Troy : he contended with
Ulyfes for Achilles's armour, and was call by the Princes who judged of their preten-
fions ; which fo afFefted him, that he grew delirious, and killed himfelf. The poet tells
us, that he was turned into an hyacinth , which wears upon it the two firlt letters of his
name, a , i. Our author fays, this herb fprung ouc of his blood.

And

Book X.

4.32 L. J. M. COLUMELLA

And now let lettice (1), with its healthful deep,

Make hafte, which of a tedious long difeafe
The painful loathings cures ; one fort grows green.

With num’rous thick-fet leaves ; a fecond fort
Ijj With dufky purple hair is fprucely drefs’d.

Both call’d Cecilian (2), from Mete Hus' name;

The third with thick, but a fmooth top, looks pale ;

Of Cappadocia , its own nation, this
Retains the name ; there’s that which is mine own,

280 Which Cadiz (3) on Tartefus ’ Ihore brings forth j
White is its curled top, white is its ftalk.

And that which Cyprus (4) on fat Taphian land
Doth nourifh, which with well-trimm’d fcarlet hair,

And milk-white leg, a gay appearance makes.

285 As many as their features, fo the times

(1) Lattuca, lettice. P liny fays, that all forts of it have a foporiferous quality, but
efpecially a blackifh fort, which, from the abundance of foporiferous milk contained in
it, as in poppy, was called meconis ; and that this kind alone, amongft the antient Italians,
was greatly efteemed, and from the abundance of milk in it was called lattuca : that all
forts of it are of a cooling nature ; therefore in fummer are very grateful to the ftomach,
and free it from naufeating, and give a good appetite ; and adds, that the Emperor Au -
gujtus was, by the ufe of it, cured of a great fit of ficknefs, by the prudent advice of
Antouius Muja his phyfician, his former phyfician having denied him the ufe of it ; for
which cure the commons of Rome ere&ed a ftatue to Mufa, hard by that of JEpulapius.
See Sueton. in Augufl. cap. 59. This, fays he, gave fuch reputation to lettice, that they
uled to preferve it in oxymel, to be ufed during the months it was not to be found
green.

(2) Columella mentions here five different forts of lettice, mod: of which have their
names either from the perfons who brought them to Rome, and cultivated them much ;
or from the country which they were brought from. That of a dark, and fomewhat of
a purple colour, and that of a green colour, and a curled leaf, he calls Cecilian, from
Cecilius Metellus , who was Conful in the firft Funic war, in the year of Rome 502. Pliny
fays, that the purple-coloured, with a very great root, was fo called ; and that it was
rightly fown in January. The Cappadocian has a pale, fmooth, thick leaf, and is fown
■bed in February.

(3) That of Bcetica , and upon the borders of Cadiz, which Columella calls his own,
becaufe he was a native of that country, was white, with a leaf very much curled : the
feafon for fowing it was in March.

(4) There was the Cyprian kind, of a whitifh-red colour, with a fmooth and very
tender leaf, which is planted very commodioufly till the 13th of April. See for all thefe
forts Columella, lib. xi. c. 3.

Pliny mentions feveral other forts, one of which he calls Cilician, which has the leaf
of the Cappadocian, except that it is curled, and broader.

The Greeks had various forts, fome with broad, fome with round ftalks, fome white,
fome red, fome black, fome purple, fome with large, fome with narrow leaves like en¬
dive. They had one fort they called Laconicon, becaufe it was fhort, and fat clofe to the
ground ; another they called picrida, becaufe it was of a bitterifh tafte, which was the
word of all. They had another fort they called eunuchion , becaufe they reckoned it
hurtful to generation ; this fort, Pliny fays, was round, with a very fmall root, and broad
leaves.

Of

433

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

Of planting each; when the new year begins,

Aquarius (f) the Ccecilian lettuce fows,

And in the mournful month (6) the priefts of Pan
The Cappadocian prefs into the ground.

290 Mars l in thy calends the Part ef an (7) fow,

The Paphian, O fair Venus ! in thine own (8).

While ardently it feeks itfelf to join
To its own moth’r inflam’d with like defire ;

And file, motl foft, beneath the eafy ground
295 Repofeth ; make her pregnant, now’s the time ;

For now the world’s genial times are come,

Now love impatient to coitions haftes :

The fpirit of this orb now headlong driv’n,

With Cupid's piercing flings, impetuous joins
goo With Venus in her revels, and promotes
Her plots of love : to every congruous part
He love for love repays, and fills with young.

The Father of the feas (9) now with fair words
His Phctys courts, and to his bed allures ;

(5) When the Sun is in the fign Aquarius , viz. in the month of Jajiuary, it is proper
to fow Cecil'tan lettuce.

(6) The month of February was called menfis feralis, becaufe then they ufed to offer
facrifices to their infernal gods, or ghofts of men departed this life ; thefe facrifices they
called parentalia : they then pretended to purge the city, which the Sabines called fe-
bruare. The priefts of Van Lyceus , called Luperci, then ran up and down the city
naked, after they had facrificed a goat to Pan-, and, with girdles made of his skin, they
ftruck the hands of pregnant women, that they might have a fafe delivery : thus they
pretended to purge the city. Pan was called Lyceus , as they fay, a tupis abigendis , be-
caufe they thought he drove away the wolves. In this month our author directs to fow
Cappadocian lettuce.

(7) Tartejida , Tartejian lettuce. Tartefus was a municipal city near Cadiz,-, the native
country of Columella ; from whence, it feems, this fort was firft brought to Rome , for
which reafon he calls it his own lettuce. The month of March was facred to Mars , and
from him called Martius ; and then was the feafon for fowing this fort.

(8) The month of April was facred to Venus , who was called Paphia from Paphos , a
city in Cyprus , where fhe was either born or worfliipped ; fo the poet calls upon her to
plant the Paphian lettuce in her own month of April , fo called from aperiendo , as fome
think, becaufe the earth then opens her womb, and produces all things in abundance,
or receives the feeds of many things into her womb.

(9) The heathen theology, andfi&ions of the poets, are in nothing more inconfiftent
and contradictory, than in the accounts they give of their marine gods ; fometimes one
is fupreme, fometimes another. By fome Oceanus is called the Father of the Jeas , and
by Hefod he is faid to be the Ion of Ccelum and Terra , the Heaven and the Earth : they
tell us, he has his name from the fwiftnefs of his motion, <&&&. to uKiusviuv. Some
make him the Father of all rivers, fountains, and fprings : his wife, they tell us, is Tethys ;
fo called from t«0», a nurfe, becaufe the water nourifhes all things.

Kkk

And

434 L. J, M. COLUMELLA Book X.

30 y And he who o’er the waters rules fupreme (10),

For Amphitrite the fame fondnefs (hews:

And both thefe ladies, to their hulbands joy.

An azure offspring quickly bring to light.

And with a fwimming people fill the fea.

310 The great eft of the gods ( 1 1) himfelf lays down
His thunderbolt, and with deceitful artSL,

As with th’ Acrifian maid of old, re-a<fts
His am’rous fcenes, and, in a violent (hower.

Into his mother’s bofom now defcends :

315 Nor does (lie treat his filial love with fcorn.

But, with defire inflam’d, the patient earth
To ftrongeft bonds of love fubmiflive yields :

Hence feas, hence mountains, hence the world intire,

Feel of returning fpring the warm effedls ;

320 Hence fpring the flaming love, and fond defires
Of mankind ; and of fowls, of flocks and herds.

Which by degrees get ffrength, and feize their hearts.

And in their marrow rage like wafting fire.

Till Venus, with enjoyment glutted, fills
3 25- Their fruitful joints, and various offsprings brings
To light, and, with a new fucceeding race
The world’s conftant ruins ftill repairs,

Left with old age it Janguifh, and be void.

But why fo bold (hould I allow my (feeds
330 With loos’ned reins, and .unreftrained courfe.

In paths fublime through boundlefs fkies to fly ?

Let him whofe head the Delphic laurel crowns.

And warms with more of Phoebus' heav’nly fire.

Who into nature’s fecret rites doth pry,

335 And who the fixed fecret laws of heav’n.

And of all things the hidden caufes knows,

(10) Neptunus is here called regnator aquarum , as if the government of the feas was
committed to his charge ; and his wife is called Amphitrite, from dy-p^exCety, its fur¬
rounding, rubbing upon, wearing and preffing the earth all round } or from uyp'}p£rJ
becaufe the fea ftrikes with terror, on all fides, fuch as fail upon it, &c.

(n) Here the poet alludes to the ftory of Jupiter turning himfelf into a golden
fliower, and dropping through the tiles into Da?iae’s lap, who was fhut up in .a itrong
tower by .her father Acrifius King of the Argives , and .getting her with child.

It is very common with the poets, to reprefent Jupiter as the father, and the Earth as
-the mother, of all things. Here our poet reprefents Jupiter as the fon, and the Earth
as his mother j and by it they fignify, that the rain makes the earth fruitful.

Make

435

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

Make fuch4ike things the fubjedl of his fong.

Let Phoebus fpur this Poet o’er the tops
Of Dindymus (12), where Cybele encamps,

340 And o’er Cithceron (13), and Nyfaan cliffs (14),

To Bacchus facred ; and the lofty tops
Of his own hill Parnaffus (if), where he dwells;

Through filent groves of the Pierian wood (16),

The Mufes friendly and fecure retreat j
34f Like frantic prieftefs, with an hideous voice,

Inceffantly invoking each by turns,

Thee, Euan (17), and thee, Pecan , Delian born (18),

Me, my Calliope , from fruitlefs cares,

And wand ring after vain purfuits, recalls,

3 f o And bids me move in more confined orb,

And with her verfes knit with (lender thread,

Which, with a tuneful voice, when hard at work,

The Pruner, hanging on his elms, may fing,

(12) 'Dindymus , a famous hill in Phrygia, with two tops, where Cybele, whom the
poets call the wife of Saturn, and the mother of the gods, was worfhipped, and her cere¬
monies celebrated with noife of arms, drums, &c. by the Corybantes , a company of
mad enthufiaftic priefts.

(13) Cithceron , a famous mountain in Boeotia, facred to the Mujes, near Parnaffus , of
which fome make it a part : it is now called Citherone.

(14) Nyfea juga. The poet here means, either one of the tops of Parnaffus, called
Nyfa, which was facred to Bacchus ; as the other, called Cyrrha , was to Apollo : or, per¬
haps, he had his eye upon Nyfa, a city in Arabia , where Bacchus was educated by the
Nyfean nymphs, at the defire of Jupiter, after the death of his mother Semele. Some
fay Nyfa was one of the tops of Cither on or Helicon.

(15) Parnaffus, a very famous mountain in Phocis in Achaia, facred to the Mufes , and
the conftant theme of poets.

(16) Pierius, a mountain in Theffaly, facred alfo to the Mufes-, from which, as fome
think, they are called Pierides.

(17) Emus. They fay this name was given to Bacchus by his father Jupiter, upon
his having performed fome great exploit : it fignifies a good fan ; and the priefteffes of
Bacchus, in their mad proceffions and revels, ufed to call upon him by this name ; and
it is common with the poets alfo to give him this name. Columella here puts the poet,
who, he willies, would undertake what he himfelf could not perform, into a ftrange fit
of enthufiaftic madnefs, and fends him from one hill and wood into another, and makes
him invoke both Apollo and Bacchus : this laft is frequently called Euan ; and his priefteffes,
in their mad proceffions, commonly called him by this name.

(18J Apollo is called Delius , becaufe he was born in the iftand Delos in the Age an
fea : it is the chief of the Cyclades , much reverenced by the antients.

Paean was a name they gave to Apollo, from a Greek word v*t», percutio, to ftrike,
fuppofing him very dextrous at (hooting with arrows : or, perhaps, ato t? ■vavuv tas
‘ evicts, a fedando molefias , fuppofing him the inventor of phyfic, and the prote&or of
phyficians.

Calliope , one of the Mufes, the mother of Orpheus ; fhe is laid to be the protedtrefs
of heroic poetry : die has her name from the fweetnefs of her voice.

K k k 2 And

436 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book X.

And Gard ner in his gardens cloath’d in green.

55 Wherefore what follows here, obferve to do:

Let creffes , direful to thofe latent worms.

Which, with food ill-digefled, th’ unfound bowels
Bring up, be fcatt’red on fmall ridges, rais’d
Between fmall furrows at fmall diftance plac’d,

360 And favory , in tafte refembling thyme:

The cucumber , with tender neck ; the gourd
With brittle ; let the prickly artichoke (19)

Be planted, which to Bacchus , when he drinks.

Is grateful ; not to Bhcebus , when he lings :

365 This fometimes riles with a purple head.

Sphere-like, with fcales clofe, and compactly fetj
Sometimes with myrtle hair, and bended neck,

It verdant grows ; fometimes with pungent top,

Like pine-tree cone ; expanded fome appear :

370 Sometimes ’tis like an ofier-bafket fhap’d.

With threat’ning prickles horrid ; fometimes pale,

It imitates brankurfine’s crook’ned leaves.

’Soon as the punic-tree (20), whofe num’rous grains.

When throughly ripe, a bright-red covering hides,

375 Itfelf fhall with its bloody blofToms cloathe j
Then is the time wakerobni-Jeed to fow;

(19) Columella fays here, thar the artichoke gives an agreeable tafte to wine, and im¬
proves it j and therefore is acceptable to Bacchus but, byreafon of its bitterifh tafte, it
is difagreeable to Apollo, becaufe it hurts the voice. He mentions here fix different forts
of artichokes, diftinguifhing them by their colour, ihape, form of their leaves ; and
other things peculiar to them : the firft, he fays, is formed round, and clofely compared
with a purple corymbus ; by which he means, that either the fcales are fo fet as to form
Something of a fpherical figure, that they have fomething of a purple colour, or that it
puts forth its flower in fuch a manner; for corymbus fignifies a clufter of flowers or fruit,
Handing on pedicles, which are difpofed in fuch a manner as to form a fphere. A fecond
fort is of the colour of myrtle-tree flowers; I fuppofe he means, has a flower like that
of the myrtle- tree, and that it bends with the weighc of its head. A third fort, he fays,
■manet adaperta , i. e. open and expanded, in oppofition to the fourth fort, with a pinea
vertex ; by which, I fuppofe, he means, that it is lhaped like a pine-tree cone. A fifth
fort, he fays, is fhaped like a wicker basket, which, I fuppofe, was fomewhat of an
oblong figure, wider in the middle, and narrower and more*contra<fted at each end, in
which form fuch as are more prickly may grow. The fixth fort, he fays, is of a palifh
-colour, and like the bended or crook’ned leaves of the acanthus , fuch as we fee them
on the chapiters of pillars, of the Corinthian order.

(20) Arbos Tunica, the pomegranate- tree; fo called, as fome think, from the red
colour of its flowers and fruit. But Pliny , lib. xiii. c. *9. fays, that it has its name from
Carthage ; probably becaufe it grew there in great plenty, and was firft brought from
thence, being a native of Africa: the apple is called granatum, .becaufe of the great
•number ofgraina or feeds it contains. The flower of this tree they called balaufi'tum.

£ Thee

437

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

Then corianders , much renown’d, fpring up;

Then to the {lender cumin grateful grow
The fennel-flowers ; then from its prickly herb
380 The fperage-berry leaps, the mallow fhoots,

Which follows with its bending head the Sun :

Then likewife rifes that audacious plant
Which imitates, O Bacchus ! thine own vines.

Nor dreads the thorns ; for ’midft the prickly briers
38 y The briony lifts up its fearlefs head,

And with its clafpers binds the wild pear-trees
And alder-trees, which culture has not tam’d.

As that Greek letter, which in order Hands
Next to the firfl: (1), is on the yielding wax
390 Imprinted with the learned mafter’s ftyle.

So then the beet , with white foot, and green leaf,

And with its Grecian name, is, with the ftroke
Of the iron-pointed tool, fet in the ground.

Yea, now the harveft, with its fragrant flowers,

395 Approaches; now the purple fpring is come ;

Now the kind parent does rejoice to fee,

With changing-colour’d offspring of the year.

Her brows furrounded ; now their gem-like eyes
The Phrygian melilots difclofe ; the violet beds
4 00 Unfold their winking eyes ; the lion yawns (2).

The rofe abafhed, with a comely blufh
Unveils her virgin-cheeks, and to the gods
Due honours pays, and with its fragrant fmell,

Sabean odours like, perfumes their domes.

405 ‘Ye Nymphs (3), which dwell on Achelous ’ banks (4),

Com-

(1) Our author here alludes to the fecond letter of the Greek alphabet, Beta ; and
.fays, that, as this letter is imprinted upon the wax with a ftyle, fo the herb, which bears
the name of this letter, is fet into the ground with a dibble.

(2) The lion yawns ; by this he under ftands, that, at fuch a time, a certain flower,
which has fome likenefs to the mouth of a lion, begins to open and Ipread. The name
•of this herb I have not as yet found.

(3) Here the Poet addrelfes himlelf to the Nymphs of feveral denominations, and in¬
vites them to gather the flowers of this agreeable feafon : what kind of beings thefe
Nymphs were, is difficult to determine. Both the Greek and Latin Poets, whojdelighted
in fi&ions, make mention of many different forts of them ; and by them they underflood
•certain powers, who preflded over, or had their refidence and abode in certain places
and things; and they reprefent them, as appearing in the form of beautiful young
women ; and there is no end of their feveral names and forts ; fome celellial, others
tcrreftrial ; fome belonged to the fea, fome to rivers, fome to mountains, fame to val

Book X,

438 L.J. M.COLUMELLA

Companions of the Mufes , which frequent
The Pegafeian fpring (5), I you befeech ;

Likewife, ye choirs of Nymphs, which fport and dance
Amongft Mcenalian oaks (6) ; and ye which dwell
410 In forefts (7), or in the 'Amphryfian wood (8),

Or in Thejfalian Tempo (9), or the cliffs
Of mount Cyllene (ro), or the fpacious lawns
Of dark Lycceus (n), or the caves, bedew’d
With conftant drops of the Cajlalian fpring (12) :

415 And ye, who in Sicania (13) pick’d the flowers
Upon Halefus banks, when Proferpine (14),

Of Ceres born, the blooming lilies cropp’d

leys, fome to woods and forefts, others to ponds and lakes, <&c. and there is fcarcdy
any remarkable river, fountain, lake, mountain, wood, or grove, but the Poets have
afligned Nymphs to them. Some fay thefe beings were called Nymph#, doro tb dii via,{
itctivity, becaufe they always appear young ; or dorb r» <p&i\vziv, becaufe of their fplendid
appearance; for which reaibn they gave this name to young brides, when they firft
fhewed themfelves in public. Whatever may be the occafion or original of their
name, they feem to be nothing but certain powers or divinities of the Poets own mak¬
ing, which, upon all occafions, have been of mighty fervice to them, and always helped
them forward, and fupported them when they began to flag and be dull upon their main
fubjeft. Our author addreffes himfelf to the greateft part, if not the whole tribe.

(4.) Achelous , a famous river in Greece-, rifing out of mount Pindus , dividing JEtolia
from Acarnania : it runs into the Ionian fea, over-againft the iflands called Echijiades.

(5) Pegafides were the Mufes that frequented a certain fountain called Hippocrene , or,
as Fergus fays, Pons Ca.balli71.us , pretended to be made by the winged horfe Pegajus’s foot.
Ic is a fountain in Bxo-tia , by mount Helicon , not far from Thebue.

(6) Mamalus , or Mcevalius , a famous mountain in Arcadia , near the city Tegea : the
Vryades , or Nymphs that delighted in oaks, the Poet tells us, frequented this place very
much.

(7) Nymph# Nape#, were fuch as inhabited valleys and forefts.

(8) Arnphryfus , a fmall river in Theffaly , much celebrated by the Poets. Our author
fpeaks of a wood, which, it feems, growing upon the banks of the faid river, took its
name from the fame.

(9) Tempe , a moil delicious fmall valley in Thelfaby , through which the river Peneus
runs, furrounded by the mountains Felion , OJfa , and Olympus , much celebrated by the

Poets.

(10) Cyllene , an high mountain in Arcadia , famous for cyprefs-trees, where the Poets
fay Mercury was born, and for that reafon was called Cyllenius.

(11) Lycaus is alfo a mountain in Arcadia , facred to Pan , the ProteAor of the Shep¬
herd s.

(12) Pons Cafl alius, a famous fpring in a mountain of the fame name in Phocis : it was
a part of PartiaJJus : the fountain was facred to the Mufes. The Poets fay it had its name
from Cafalia, a virgin, who, flying from Apollo , was changed into a fountain.

(13) Sicania , another name for Sicily ; and Halefus is a river in Sicily, which rifes in a
mountain not far from mount JEtna.

(i+l Proferpina. The Poets tell us, that fhe was daughter of Ceres , and raviflied by
Pluto on the plains of Enna, near a city of that name, in the middle of Sicily, where
Ceres had a famous temple ; and carried to the infernal regions, where fhe became his
Queen.

Of

439

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

Of the Enncean plain, with mind intent
Upon your dances, and was fnatch’d away
420 By the Lethoean Tyrant, and became

His wife; and fo the gloomy (hades preferr’d
To the bright ftars j the manfions of grim death
To thofe of life ; and the Tartarean pit
To heav’n ; and Pluto to the mighty Jove ;

425* And o’er th’ infernal kingdom now fhe reigns:

Now lay afide your mourning, and fad fear,

And with a gentle pace your tender feet
Turn hither j and our parent Earth's foft hairs
In order in your facred bafkets lay.

430 Here are no fnares to catch unwary Nymphs,

No rapes to fear j by us chafte faith is kept
Inviolate j pure are our houlhold gods :

With jokes, and carelefs laughter, and with wines
Unmixt, each place is fill’d j with chearful feafts
435 And banquets the green meadows gay appear.

Now is the lukewarm fpring, and of the year
The fofteft feafon ; now young Phoebus rays
Are gentle, and invite us to lie down
Upon the tender grafs, where with delight
440 We drink of fprings, which are not chill’d with cold,.

Nor heated with the Sun, which with fhrill voice
O’er grafly fields refounding fly away.

And now Dione s daughter ( 1 5), with fvveet flowers,

The gardens crowns ; and now the rofe , more bright
445 Than Tyrian fcarlet, does begin to blow.

Not with fo bright and radiant face appears
The daughter of Latona (16), Phoebe , when
The cold and cloud-difpelling North-wind blows.;

Nor yet the ardent Sirius ( 17), when his heat
450 Is molt intenfe ; nor ftar of fiery Mars

(15) Dtone , the mother of Venus by Jupiter: Venus prefided over gardens, and the
month of April was facred to her ; from her mother’s name fhe was called Dionea.

(1 6) Latona , in the heathen mythology, is faid to have brought forth two children
to Jupiter , Apollo and Diana , otherwife called Phoebus and Phoebe j the full frequently
•put for the Sun, and the fecond for the Moon.

(17) Sirius is a bright ftar in the mouth of Cants major , fo called from its drying and
•fcorching 'influence.

44-0 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book X

So brightly fliiue; nor Hefperus (18), with face
So glittering, from th’ eaftern climes returns.

The forerunner of the approaching day
Nor Iris (19), with her glorious rainbow cloath’d
44 y So fulgent, as the chearful gardens fhine

With their bright offspring, when they’re in their bloom.

Mark therefore when the night is near its end,

And the Day-ffar appears, or when the Sun
His horfes plunges in th’ Iberian fea,

4/S0 Where-e’er fweet marjoram perfumed fhades

Does fpread, come now and pluck it ; and the hairs
Of daffodil ; and fragrant leaves and flowers
Of the wild punic-tree , which bears no fruit.

And, that Alexis (20) may not look with fcorn
465 On Cory don's great wealth, fair Nats l come.

More beauteous than the beauteous boy, and bring
In bafkets •violets , and fragrant balms,

Mixt with white privet • and with faffron-flowers
Sweet cajjia bind and with the pureft wine,

470 Which Bacchus moft approves, all thefe bedew ;

For Bacchus odours with this juice preferves.

Likewife, ye ruftics, who with hard’ned thumb
The tender flowers crop, with hyacinths
Iron-colour’d, the white ojier bafkets fill.

47 y Now let the rofe the' threads of twifted rufh
Diftend ; and, with flame-colour ’d marigolds
Let the fqueez’d panier burft ; of vernal wares
For fale, let rich Vortumnus (1) have great ftore;

And

(18) Hefperus. The planet Venus, appearing in the morning before day-light, is called
Lucifer ; and in the evening, after the Sun fees, is called Vefperus : the morning and the
evening ftar.

(19) Iris , the rainbow, reckoned, as Mercury , the meffenger of the gods; but, asfome
think, moftly in litigious matters, fo called quaji ’£&{, i. e. ftrife and contention ; others,
as Plato and Proclus , rather think fhe was fo called from ip&v, to fpeak , becaufe file was
employed by them for this purpofe. Cicero , de Natura Deorum , lib. iii. fays, fhe was faid
to be the daughter of Thaumans , becaufe of her wonderful and beautiful appearance :
fhe is called by our author Tbaumantias.

(20) Here our author imitates Virgil, Formofi pecoris cujlos formofor ipje', and alludes
to the fecond Eclogue.

(1) Vortumnus , the god of merchandife : he prefided over buying and felling, a ver¬
tex dis mercibus : all the firft fruits were dedicated to him, grapes, apples, pears, cher¬
ries, &(. There are feveral other reafons given of this name ; one is ab anno vertente ,

which

44i

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

And let the Carrier, with a ftagg ’ring pace,

4,80 Wet with much wine, from town with joy return,

Weigh’d down with cafh with which his bofom’s fill’d.

But when the harveft with ripe ears of com
Grows yellow, and bright Titan (2) with his Twins
Extends the day, and with his burning heat
Shall fcorch the claws of the Lerncean Crab,

Then gar lick join with onions , and with dill
The Cereali an poppies (3) ; and, when bound
In bundles, while they’re green, to market bring;

And, when your wares are fold, with chearful voice
490 The praifes of propitious Fortune found.

And to your gardens haften back with joy :

And, in new-broken and weli-wat’red ground
Sow bafil, and with weighty cylinders
Comprefs it, left the fcorching heats pervade
495 The loofe and open duft, and parch the feeds;

Or the fmall garde n -in fe<ft, creeping in
By ftealth, infeft and vex them with its teeth ;

Or the rapacious plund’ring ant deftroy.

Not only dares the [nail, wrapt in its (hell,

500 And hairy palmer-worm , prefume to gnaw
The tender buds and leaves ; but, as loon as
The lurid cabbage , on its thriving ftalk,

Begins to fwell, and pale beet bulky grows ;

And Gard’ner, free from fear, rejoices in
yoy His adult wares, and, now they’re ripe, prepares
The fickle to put in ; oft-times fierce Jove
Does dart his grievous Ihow’rs, and with hail-ftones
The labours both of men and beafts deftroys :

which was fo called by the antients, when the Sun returns to the fign from whence it
began its courfe. If any defire to have a full account of this pagan divinity, he may
confult Propertius , lib. iv. de fabula Vortumni.

(2) Titan: the Sun is frequently called by this name; and the author’s meaning is,
That, when the Sun is in the figns Gemini and Cancer , the day lengthening, and the heat
increafing, then fuch and fuch things are proper to be done. The Poet tell us, that,
when Hercules was fighting with the ferpent Hydra , with many heads, Juno fent the Crab
to bite his heel, and that Hercules flew it. It is called Cancer Lcrnaus, becaufe it was
of the lake Lerna in Peloponnefus , near Argyps. They tell us alfo, that Juno placed it
among the liars.

(3) Cereale papaver : this our author borrows from Virgil , Georg, i. 21 1. where Ser -
lius fays, that poppy was fo called, either bccaufe it was eaten as corn, or becaufe Ceres
made ufe of it to forget her forrows. Pliny , lib. xix. 8. fays, that ruftics ufed to fprinkle
it upon the cruft of their bread, mixed with an egg, to make it flick to it.

L 1 1 He,

Book X.

442 L. J. M.COLUMELLA

He, likewife, oft with rains, pregnant with feeds
yio Peftiferous, bedews them, which produce

Thofe worms, which to grey willow -groves , and vines a
Are hurtful ; and o’er all the gardens creeps
The caterpiller, which, with pois’nous bite.

Dries up the plants, which, of their comely hair
5 1 y Bereft, lie mangled with their naked tops,

And with the baneful poifon pine and die.

That, with thefe direful woes, the Hufbandmen
Should not be overwhelm’d, labour and ufe,

And various experience itfelf
520 Of things, their teacher, and their fafefl guide,

Has fhown to wretched men new arts and means
Of fafety ; how to /till the raging winds,

And to avert, with facred Tufcan rites (4),

The boift’rous ftorm : hence is it that with blood,

£25 And entrails of a whelp, fnatch’d from the dug,

Rubigo (y), full of mifchief, is appeas’d.

That fo the verdant herbs he may not parch.

Hence Tages (6), (as we’re told) the Tufcan Seer,

In borders of his held was wont to place
530 Th’ Arcadian afs’s head, ftript of its fkin.

And Tarchon (7), to avert the thunderbolts
Of mighty Jovey his feats with white-vine hedge

f4l Tufcan rites. The Tufcans were very famous of old for their facred ceremonies
and fupertlitions, and were the great directors of the - Romans , who adopted mod of
them.

(5) Rubigo or Rubigus. Our author puts it feminine; fome write it Robigo. They
offered lacrifice to this god, that he might not fmire the corns with blafting and mildew:
fee Aul. Gell. lib. iv. c. 6. alfo lib • v. c. 12. They ufed to facrifice to him a whelp and
a fheep in the month of April , and offered them with frankincenie and wine : they
celebrated his fefttval at Rome , on the 25th day of that month, becaufe, about that time,
the corns began to be blafted. Numa infticuted this feaft in the nth year of his reign,
as Rliny tells us, lib. xviii. cap. 29. Of thefe fuperftitious practices, &c. he fays a great
deal, lib. xvii. cap. 28. and Pal/adius, lib. i. cap. 35.

(6) Tages was had in great veneration among the Hetrufci ; was the Inventor of Divi¬
nation, asTully-, de Divinatione , and Valerius Maximus , ararm: it feems he wrote fome
books upon the art for explaining of prodigies, thunders, lightnings, <&c. Plutarch ,
Ifdorus , and feveral other authors, mention him as the Founder of the Hetrufcan cere¬
monies ; and the Aujpices , Harufpices , and all the other Diviners among the Romans , de¬
rived their difeipline from him, which they improved, and amplified afterwards by their
own obfervations. If any want to know more of this Diviner, they may confult Tally-,
de Divinatione , lib. ii.

(7) Tarchon. Perhaps this is the fame with that Tarchon General of the Hetrufci , who
■came to affift JEneas againft Turnus and the Rutilit Vtrg. JEnetd. lib. viii. 1. 12 1> <&c.

Sur-

443

Book X. Of HUSBANDR Y.

Surrounded ; and Amythaoris fon (8), who learn'd
Of Chiron various arts, was wont to hang
535 Nocturnal birds on croffes, and forbid

On high houfe-tops their mournful fongs to weep,

But, that dire animals may not devour
The tender blades, it fometimes has avail'd.

With lees of olive-oil, not mixt with fait,

540 To fprinkle ; or to fatiate the feeds

With that black foot, which in the chimney breeds.

It alfo has avail’d, on tender plants
The bitter waters of horehound to pour,

Or with much juice of houjleek to anoint.

545 But, if no medicine this hurtful plague
Is able to repel, then to your aid
Let the Dardanian arts (9) make hade and come :

Thrice round the garden’s hedge, and all its beds.

With open bofom, and difhevell’d hair,

550 Barefooted, fad and penfive, and alham’d,

A woman they condudt, who then does feel
The force of fettled laws, to which her youth
Is fubjedt ; and when, with a gentle pace.

She has furvey’d them, (’tis a wond’rous fight)

555 Juft as a fhow’r of mad wrapt in its bark,

Or apples round, rains from the fhaken tree,

(8) Amythonias is Melampus the fon of Amythaon, a famous Diviner and Phyfician,
as Pliny fays. He is much celebrated by Homer, and other Poets : he found out the
virtues of one kind of hellebore, which, from his name, i3 called Melampodion. He was,
as our author infinuates, Chiron’s fcholar, who was Achilles’s Tutor, and, asfomefay, the
Inventor of Phyfic, which he taught ALfculapius.

(9) Dardanitc artes. Magic was fo called from one Dardanns, a famous Magician,
and a great Promoter of this vain, pretended, occult fcience : he wrote a great deal upon
this arr, from whom, as Pliny fays, Democritus, a great Promoter of it, derived his pre¬
tended knowledge. Pliny, lib. xiii. cap. 1. exclaims highly againft the vanity of this art,
and calls it the moft deceitful of all arts whatfoever; fays, that it had its rife, at firft,
from Phyfic ; and that, from a pretext of curing people by a more profound and facred
art of Phyfic, it creeped in gradually, and became in great requeft ; and to the art of
curing difeafes it added that of foretelling things by Mathematical knowledge, Aftro-
nomy, <&c. fo that it prevailed over all nations almoft in his time. This Democritus , he
fays, gave the firft. recommendation to the art, which the greateft Philofophers after¬
wards w’ere at the greateft pains to attain to ; as Pythagoras , Plato , &c. He wonders
that this art and Phyfic fiouiifhed at the fame time; for Democritus and Hippocrates were
cotemporaries, about the three hundredth year of Rome. Colunsella here gives us an ac¬
count of as vain and ridiculous a pradtice as any, and yet, in fome other places, he in¬
veighs againft all fuperftitious practices ; and, indeed, it is ftrange, that both he, and the
other ruftic writers, flrould fo gravely recommend this.

LI l 3

The

444

Book X.

L. J. M, COLU M E L L A

The caterpiller, of all fenfe bereft,

Rolls, with diftorted body, to the earth :

Thus once, in former times, Iolcos faw (io)

360 The Dragon , lull’d afleep with magic fongs,

From Phryxus golden fleece, fall to the ground.

But now’s the time, the early cabbage ftalks
Firfb to cut down, and alfo to pluck up
The Paphian and Tartefian lettice-thyrfe,

$6$ And with the leek, form’d to be often cut,

And pa7'Jleyy the green bundles to furround.

Now in the fruitful garden fprings apace
Salacious rocket (1 1) ; likewife now begin
The flipp’ry rhubarb (12), buckthorn , and fea-leek,
gyo Spontaneous to wax green j the prickly hedge,

Horrid with butcher s-br 00m , begins to fhoot :

Wild fperage likewife, which great likenefs bears
T’ afparagus , comes forth j the outmoft ranks
Opprefl; with third:, moifl: purjlane now protects :

57 7 And the long kidney-bean , a conftant foe
To arrach , at fame time lifts up his head.

The crooked cucumber (13), and pregnant gourd.
Sometimes from arbors pendent, and fometimes,
Snake-like, through the cold fhades of grafs they creep,
580 And from the Summer-fun a fhelter feek.

Thefe have not the fame features, nor one fhape j
For, if the longefl: pleafes mod, which grows
Sufpended by its own head’s flender top,

(10) Iolcos, a town in Tbejfaly , the native country oF Jafon, who, by the aftiftance of
Medea, recovered the golden fleece from Colcbos, whither Phryxus had carried ir, where
it was conftantly watched by a dragon, which the, by her magic arts, lulled afleep, till
Jajon carried away the fleece.

(ix) Eruca fa/ax : Rocket is fo called, becaufe it is a provocative to venery.

(12) Lubrica lapatbos , flippery rhubarb •, fo called from its lubricating and purging
quality.

(13) Cucumls. Ic feems that this word, amongft the Homans, was of a larger fignifica-
tion j and fignified not only what we call cucumbers , but pompions and melons alfo :
fuch of them as grew bulky, and ran out in length, and became very mellow, tender,
and flaccid, when throughly ripened, loft their name, and were called pepo?tes but fuch
of them as grew round, like an apple, they called melopepones : but the true cucumis , the
riper it grows, the more folid cartilages does it confill of, and is covered, as ic were,
with an hard woody cruft. Our author feems here to have deferibed particularly the
cucurbita, which grows to a great bulk, fo that they formed veffels of them for contain¬
ing honey and pitch, and goblets for drinking ; and, when dried, were made ufe of by
boys for fupporting them in the water, when they were learning to fwim.

I

Then

445

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

Then from its {lender neck feled: the feeds ;

5-85 But if that, with a globe-like body, pleafe,

Which with too huge a belly lwells, then choofe
The feed which in its womb inclofed lies ;

This will an offspring bring, fit to contain
Hymettian honey (14), or Narycian pitch (if) :
5-90 It likewife flagons, fit for Bacchus' ufe,

And goblets, meet for water, will produce ;

And boys in rapid llreams will teach to fwim ;
But then the livid cucumber , which grows
With pregnant womb, and hairy like a fnake,
ypf Lies on its crooked belly, always coil’d,

And, cover’d with the knotty grals, impairs
The health, and of th’ unfriendly Summer makes
Difeafes more acute ; of this the juice
Is fetid ; likewife with fat feeds ’tis fluff’d.

600 But that which to the dropping water creeps (16)
Below the arbour, and purlues the fame
As down it trickles, and with too much love
Extenuated, and of a colour white.

More trembling than the udder of a fow
6oy Which newly has brought forth, and fofter is
Than curdled milk juft in the cheefe-vat pour’d,
Shall to the tafle be fweet ; and, when ’tis ripe.

In land well watered it yellow grows,

And to fick mortals fure relief will bring.

610 When of Erigone (17) the faithful Dog ,

With 'Thcebus ’ fcorching heat all in a flame.

Shall of the fruitful trees the fruits difclofe }

(14) H ymettus, a mountain in Attica , famous for honey.

(15) Naric/a, a town in Magna Gracia, belonging to the people called Locrk It
feems this country produced abundance of pines, which yielded abundance of tar and
pitch.

(16) Pliny mentions this quality of the cucumis, of the pompion-kind, that, when it
grows hanging, it always inclines towards water ; and, if water be placed near it, it will foon
fhew its tendency towards it : fo here our author fays it grows {lender with too much
love, nimio tenuatur amore.

(17) Erigone was the daughter of learnt, who firft taught the people of Attica the
ufe of wine, of which the Shepherds having drunk too freely, w’ere intoxicated with ir,
and flew Icarius , whofe dog difeovered the murder to the daughter, by conducing her to
the dead body : her grief was fo exceflive, that (he hanged herfelf. The Poets have
placed her in the heavens, and made her one of the twelve figns ; and they have done
the fame favour to the dog, and called him Siriut , or the Dog-ftar : it is faid to difclofe
the fruits, becaufe it parches the leaves which cover them.

And

446 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book X

And when the fmall white ofier-balket, fill’d
With mulberries, diftils with bloody juice ;

6 1 5 Then from twice-bearing tree the rathe-ripe fig

Defcends ; then are the wicker balkets cramm’d
With Damafc\ and Armenian , and wax plums (18) ;

And apples, which moil barbarous Perjia lent (19)

With native poifons arm’d (as Fame relates) :

620 But now they’ve loft their pow’r to kill, and yield
Ambrofian juice, and have forgot to hurt ;

And of their country ftill retain the name :

Thofe of fmall fize, to ripen make great hafie ;

Such as great Gaul beftows obferve due time,

62 y And feafon, not too early, nor too late.

In colds the Afian come, a tardy fruit :

But underneath Arfhirus hurjful ftar

The Livian-tree , which with Cbalcidian vies,

As Caunian with the Chian , brings forth figs (20) ;

And

(18) Our author mentions here only three different forts of plums, viz. the Arme¬
nian, which, Pliny fays, are commendable for their fmell. Father Hardouin fays, that
fome modern writers have in vain contended, that they are the fame as apricocks j the
cereola, or, as Pliny calls them, ccrina , from their wax colour ; and the Damafcus plums ,
fo called from Damafcus in Syria , which are commonly called Damafc prunes. Pliny
mentions feveral other forts, and fays, nec aliud pomum ingeniofus gem in a turn, fo curioufly
diverfified by ingraftments.

(19) Perfca , peaches: they are natives of Perfa, and ftill retain their name, with very
little variation, in feveral languages. Pliny fays, they were foreign both to Afa and
Greece , and that it was late before they were brought into Italy ; and with difficulty took
there ; that it is falfe, that they Were poifonous in Perfa , &cc. By this he feems to con¬
fute Columella's opinion, which, I fuppofe, was commonly received at that time, and
not improper to be mentioned in a poem, where fidt ions often help the Poet very much
forward in his work, which he is not to be fuppofed always to believe.

Our author mentions only three forts j Prascocia , Afatica, Gallica. The firft, Pliny
fays, ripen in fummer, and were brought into Italy not thirty years before his time.
Diofcorides fays, that the fmaller peaches were called Arvicniaca, and by the Romans Pr os-
coda. Some call them apricocks , but others, with more reafon, call them early peaches :
the French call them les avant-pefehes. The A fan and Gallic an were of a larger fiz,e,
and have their names from the countries where they were moft cultivated, and did
thrive beft, and from whence probably they were firft: brought to Rome. Pliny gives the
preference to a fort he calls duracina , of a firmer and harder flefhy fubftance, which does
not cleave, and is not eafily feparated from the ftones.

(20) Columella mentions here nine different forts of figs; they take their names either
from the perfons who firft cultivated them, or delighted moft in them ; the places
where they abounded moft, or grew in greateft perfection ; or from their colour, fhape, &c.
Moft part of them have been already mentioned in the fifth book, except three or four ;
viz. the Chelidonian , fo called from yyhtSuv, a final loin ; either becaufe fwallows feed
on them, or, as fome fay, becaufe they are ripe about the time the fwallows depart ;
but this docs not agree with what Pliny fays, lib. xv. c. 18. that it ripens the laft in the

Winter-

447

Book X. Of HUSBANDRY.

630 And Chelidonians of a purple hue.

And the MariJ'cans , which are fat and plump j
And Cal lift rut hi an, which with rofy feed
Does fmile ; the white , which of the yellow wax
The furname keeps j and Libyan , chanell’d round ;

635" The Lydian alfo with its painted back.

But, when flow-footed Vulcan's (21) facred rites
Have duly been perform’d, and clouds begin
To rife, and rains hang hovering in the air.

Then is the turnep (2 2)fown, which Nurfta fends
64,0 From her renowned fields j and navews , brought
From the well-manur’d Amiternian lands.

But anxious Bacchus , now the grapes are ripe,

Requires our cares, and our attendance waits.

And all our well-drefl: gardens bids us fliut ;

645" We ruftics fhut them, and without delay.

Dear Bacchus ! (23) we, fubmiflive, thy commands
Obey : we own thy empire, and with joy
Thy gifts we gather, and, reviv’d, we tol's

Winter-time. Columella fays they are of a purple colour. The]Marifcan fig is fo called,
perhaps, from irs ftrong robuft quality : fome think they ought rather to be called mo-
rifica , from juapar, fatuus, becaufe Martial calls them fatuas marifeas , becaufe of their
infipid difagreeable flac tafte : the Italians call it fico lardare , it being exceeding large
and fat. 'I’hey ufed to dry them in the Sun, and keep them for the fervice of the whole
year ; albaque qua cera. Pliny calls thefe albicerata , from the refemblance they bear in
their colour to white bees-wax.

(21) Vulcan , according to the Mythologifts, was the fon of Jupiter and Juno. They
tell us, that his father, once in an angry fit, threw him headlong out of heaven, down
to the ifland Lemnos ; and that by his fall he contracted a lamenefs ; for which reafon
they call him tarpides, and Ly the Greeks he is called xdaaoto/'iw, and xvAAW'T&r, and
'yuhciTTvf and they frequently make themfelves very merry with the misfortunes and
adventures of this lame divinity. His feaft was celebrated in the month of Augufi.

(22) Rapum , a turnep, by the Greeks called yoyyv A», from its round figure. Napus ,
a navew, by them called (iw'iac, from /Juror, an hill, perhaps becaufe they were planted on
rifing grounds. Our author fays, that the firft grew out into a broad belly, and the
fecond did ftrike its fmall root downward. The turneps of Nurfia , a town of the Sabines ,
as Pliny fays, were moft efteemed both for their bignefs and fweetnefs ; but the navews
of Amiiernum , a town in Campania , according to our author, were the beft.

(23) Bacchus , as every body knows, was reckoned the Inventor of Wine, and by the hea¬
thens numbered amongft their gods, and worfhipped: amongft other names he was called
Masnalus , as fome fay, from a mountain in Arcadia , where he had a temple, and was wor¬
fhipped. EufebiuS) de Praparatione Evangelii, fays he was called Manolos^ quafi totusfurens,
which is a name more fuitable for him : his facred rites were called orgia , as the fame-
author thinks, Sad th; opytif, becaufe of the madnels and fury wherewith his priefts cele¬
brated his feftivals : his priefteffes were called Mcenades , tb ptctiveo-dcu, from the mad-
nefs of their behaviour alfo at the fame time. He is alfo called Lyaus , from a v«/y, to
dijfiolve-, becaufe wine diffolves cares ; and Lenaus> t* awS, becaufe he prefided over
the wine-prefs : all which names our author has diftin<5tly_expreflcd in a few lines.

Our

448 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A, if c. Book X.

Our arms, enfeebled with ftale wine : ’midft crouds
650 Of wanton Satyrs, Fauns , and Pan himfelf,

With double form, we thee invoke and praife,

Who dwell’d; in Manalus, who all our cares
Diflolv’fl: ; thee, Father Bacchus ! who prefid’ft
O’er the wine-prefs, we to our homes invite,

&5S That in our vats the grape’s preft juice may work,

And all our tuns with much Falernian fill’d,

And richeft muff, may foam and overflow.

Thus far, Sihinus , I’ve eflay’d to teach
The culture of the ground, and to relate
660 The precepts which our heav’nly Maro taught.

Who firfl: the antient fountains to unlock
Adventur’d, and through all the Roman towns
His rural verfe, like Aj era's Poet (24), fung.

(24) A feraum carmen. Hejiod, a very antient Poet, probably as old, if not older
than Homer : he was of A/cra in Bxotia , and was therefore called Afcraus •vates. He
wrote of Husbandry in verfe : Virgil imitated him, and therefore he called his Georgicr
Afcneum carmen.

L. JU-

[ 449 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

BOOK ELEVENTH.

CHAP. I.

What things ought to he done within the Manor- houfe, by a
Man advanced to , and intrufled with the Office of a
Bailiff .

fyLAUDIUS , a fellow of the college of Augufius' s priefts (i),
a youth of as ingenuous a natural difpofition, as of excellent
learning, incited by the difcourfes of feveral learned men, and
efpecially of fuch as are fkilful in Husbandry, has, by his importunity,
engaged me to compofe a treatife of the Culture of Gardens, in profe :
nor indeed was I miftaken, as to this event of the matter, when I
reduced the forefaid fubjetft to the laws of verfe. But as you, Publius
Silvinus, ftill perfifted to afk a tafte of my verification, I had not

(i) Claudius Augujtalis. The Emperor Tiberius inftituted a college of priefts, 21 in
number, to the honour of the Julian family, as he pretended ; and, as they had ranked
Augufius among their gods, thefe priefts were appointed to celebrate the facred ceremo¬
nies they performed to this new divinity : Claudius , who was afterwards Emperor, was,
as Suetonius fays, by a vote of the Senate, added to their number, contrary to the ufual
way of election, which was by lot. It is very probable, that this Claudius , mentioned
here by Columella , is the fame who was afterwards Emperor, who, in the beginning of
the reign of Tiberius , might properly enough be called adolefcens, being but about
24 years old, for he died aged 64: he reigned 13 years, 8 months, 28 days; fo that he
was about 50 years old when he began to reign ; from which if we fubtradl 22 years
that Tiberius reigned, there remain 24, the age of Claudius when Augufius died \ and we
may find fome above that age called adolefcentes by claftical authors. From this we may
conclude, that Columella wrote this book either in the latter end of Augujlus’s reign, or
in the beginning of that of Tiberius.

M m m

power

450 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

power to deny yon, intending presently afterwards, if it fhould be
acceptable to you, to do that which I am now undertaking ; viz. to
fubjoin the bnfinefs of a Gardener to the offices of a Bailiff: which
tho' I feemed, in fome meafure, to have fully done in the firft book
of Hu (ban dry ; neverthelefs, becaufe our friend of the college of
Augufhis s priefls has frequently, with earneilnefs, demanded it of
me, I have exceeded the number of books, which I had now almoft
completed, and have publifhed this eleventh book of the precepts of
Hufbandry.

It is proper, that a Bailiff, who has the charge of your land and
family committed to him, fhould be neither in the firft, nor in the
laft ftage of life : for the fervants defpife a novice as much as they do
an old man ; becaufe the former is not as yet acquainted with rural
affairs, and the latter is not now in a condition to manage them ; and
youth makes the one negligent, and old age the other flow and un-
adtive • therefore a middle age is the fitted: for this office : and, if
accidental defedts and indifpofitions of body do not happen, from
thirty years old to fixty, he may be able to perform all the offices of
an able and fufficient Hufbandman.

But whoever he be, that fhall be deftinated to this bufinefs, he
muA be very knowing, and exceeding robuft, that he may teach
thofe that are under his command, and that he himfelf may eafily
do what he commands : for, indeed, nothing is either taught or
learned rightly, without an example ; and it is beft, that a Bailiff be
the matter of the Labourers, and not their fcholar ; confidering what
Cato, who was an example of the manners of antient times, did fay,
That a Majier is ill dealt by, whom his Bailiff teaches. Therefore, in
Xenophon's Oeconomic, which Marcus Cicero tranflated into Latiny
that excellent man ifchomachus the Athenian (2), being afked by
Socrates, whether he ufed, when the affairs of his family required it,
to purchafe a Bailiff in the market, as he did a common Handicrafts¬
man, or to train him up himfelf ; I myfelf, fays he, inftrudt him :
for he, who, in my abfence, is fubftituted in my room, and fucceeds
as my deputy, to fupply my diligence, ought to know fuch things as
I myfelf know. But thefe things are too antient, and, indeed, belong
to that time wherein the fame Ifchomachus denied, that there was
any man ignorant of adting the part of an Hufbandman. But let us,

(2) IJchomachus . It is no matter whether this was a fiftitious or a real perfon : he is
introduced by Xenophon as difcourfing with Socrates about the management of domeftic
affairs j where we have many wife precepts of oeconomy put into his mouth by that
noble and ingenious antient author, many of which are here mentioned by Columella.

who

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 451

who are mindful of our own ignorance, commend to the care of the
moll Skilful HuSbandmen fuch young men, as are of a quick and
lively apprehension, and of a robutt body ; by whofe inftrudtions, if
it were but one out of many (for it is a difficult thing to inftrudt
perfectly) may attain to the knowledge, not only of adting the part
of an HuSbandman, but of commanding alfo : for there are fome,
who, tho’ they are mod excellent and approved workmen, and under¬
stand all kinds of work, having very little prudence and Skill to com¬
mand, ruin their Matters affairs, by adting either with too much
cruelty, or with too much lenity alfo. Wherefore, as I have faid,
the future Bailiff mutt be taught, and, from the time he is a boy,
hardened in rural bufinefs and labour, and, by many trials, be firft nar-,
rowly examined and looked into ; not only whether he has throughly
learned, and attained to the knowledge of rural difeipline, but, alfo,
if he is honeft and faithful to his Matter, and has a real good will and
affedlion to him, without which the Bailiff’s greateft knowledge is of
no advantage.

But the chief and principal thing, in this kind of matterfhip, is to
know and to judge rightly, what fort of office, and what fort of
labour, is to be affigned and injoined to every one in particular : for
even the ftrongeft cannot execute what is commanded, if he be igno¬
rant of what he is doing ; nor the mott Skilful, if he has not Strength :
fo the quality of every thing mutt be considered ; becaufe there are
fome works that require Strength only, fuch as removing weighty
things, and carrying burdens ; fome require Strength and art united,
as digging and plowing, and cutting down corns and meadows; to
fome lefs Strength, and more art, is applied, as to the pruning and graft¬
ing of vineyards : alfo knowledge is of mott account in fome things,
as in feeding of cattle, and giving them medicines ; of all which offices
the Bailiff, whom I have already mentioned, cannot be a right judge,
unlefs he be alfo Skilful, that, in every thing whatfoever, he may be
able to corredt what is done amifs : for it is not enough, that he has
reproved one that has done a fault, if he does not teach him the way
to do right. Therefore I am willing to fay the fame thing over again :
it is as neceflary, that one, that is to be a Bailiff, be taught, as one
that is to be a Potter, Carpenter, Mafon, or any trade whatfoever :
and I would not take upon me to determine, whether thefe trades are
not fo much the more expeditiouSly learned, inafmuch as they are
of lefs compafs. But the fubjedt-matter of Agriculture is great and
diffufe ; and, if we would fully enumerate all its parts, we could
fcarcely number them. Wherefore I cannot enough admire, which

M m m 2 I very

452 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookXI.

I very judly complained of in the fird: book of my writings, that of
the other arts, which are lefs neceffary for life, there were found
Mailers and Teachers j but of Hulbandry, there were neither Scholars
nor Teachers to be found, unlefs the greatnefs of the fubjedl has be¬
gotten an awe and reverence, either of learning or profefiing a fcience
which is almoft boundlefs, when notwithllanding it ought not there¬
fore to have been negledted, by bafely defpairing of it. For neither
is the art of Oratory deferted, becaufe a perfedt Orator has no-where
been found ; nor Philofophy, becaufe there is no man of confummate
wifdom ; but, on the contrary, very many men encourage themfelves
at lead: to learn fome parts of them, altho’ they cannot underftand
them all : for what justifiable reafon is that of being intirely fpeech-
lefs, becaufe you cannot be a perfect Orator j or to be driven to floth
and idlenefs, becaufe you defpair of wifdom ? for it is no fmall glory
to have had a fhare of a great thing, how little foever you may have
poffeffed of it.

Who therefore, fay you, fhall teach him that is to be a Bailiff", if
there is no Profeffor ? And I myfelf know very well, that it is a moft
difficult thing to attain to the knowledge of all the precepts of Huf-
bandry from one author, as it were : nevertheless, tho’ you will
fcarcely find any one man throughly acquainted with the whole art,
yet you may find many that are mailers of parts of it, by whom you
may be able to form a complete Bailiff. For there is both fomebody
to be found who is a good Tiller of the ground, and an excellent
Digger, or Mower j as alfo a good Planter and Dreffer of trees, and
a Vine-dreffer ; as alfo a Farrier, and a very good Shepherd or Herds¬
man ; and none of thefe will refufe to communicate the principles of
their knowledge to one that defires it.

Therefore let him, who is formed and inftrudted by the knowledge
and fkill of feveral Hufbandmen, and who fhall take upon himfelf
the office of a Bailiff, avoid, in the firft place, the familiar and inti¬
mate converfation of thofe of the family, and much more that of
flrangers. Let him be very abftemious with refpedt to wine and fleep,
both which are very great enemies to diligence : for as a drunkard
impairs his memory, fo he becomes remifs and carelefs in his office ;
and very many things efcape one that is given to deep : for what can
he either do himfelf, or command any other, when he is adeep ? Alfo
let him have an averfion to venereal amours, to which if he once give
up himfelf, he will not be able to think of any other thing what-
foever, but that which he loves : for his mind, being inveigled and
bewitched with vices of this fort, thinks that there is neither any

reward

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 453

reward more agreeable than the gratification of his luff, nor punifh-
ment more grievous than the being deprived of what he defires, and
is fond of.

Therefore let him be firft awake, and up in the morning, before
any other body ; and, according to the feafons of the year, let him
bring out the fervants to their work quickly, who are always for
lingering and delaying to go to it ; and let him march at their head
himfelf, and fhow himfelf adtive and forward : for it is of very great
importance, that fuch as labour the ground (hould begin their work
as foon as the morning begins to dawn, and not through idlenefs and
lazinefs proceed (lowly in it : for, as the fame IJchomachus before-
mentioned fays, I would rather have the fervice and labour of one
adtive and induftrious man, than that of ten men who are negligent
and (low ; for it occafions a great deal of mifchief, if labouring men
have liberty to trifle away their time wantonly (3). For as in going
a journey, the man, who always goes on, and does not loiter and flop
by the way, frequently comes by one half fooner to the end of his
journey, than he, who, having fet out at the fame time, fought after,
and amufed himfelf with the (hades of trees, the delightfulnefs of
fprings, or the refrelhing coolnefs of the air j fo, in the bufinefs of
Agriculture, it can fcarcely be told, how much an afiiduous conftant
labourer is preferrable to one that is (luggifh, and a loiterer. There¬
fore it is neceflary, that the Bailiff take care, that all the fervants, as
foon as it is light, go forth to their work, not in a dilatory languish¬
ing manner, but that with vigour, and chearfulnefs of mind, as if
they were going forth to fome battle, they boldly follow him, march¬
ing at their head as their Captain j and let him frequently encourage
and chear them up, while they are adtually at work : and Sometimes,
as if he were going to afiift him that is flagging and fainting, let him,
for a little while, take the iron-tool out of his hand, and do his
bufinefs ; and admonifh and diredt him, that it ought to be done fo, as
he himfelf has vigoroufly done it.

And in the evening, when the twilight is come, let him leave no
body behind him ; but let him march after them all, like a good
Shepherd, who fuffers none of the cattle in his flock to be left in the
field. Moreover, when he comes under the roof, let him do the
fame thing that that careful Shepherd does ; and not prefently (hut up
and hide himfelf in his apartment, but take as much care of every

(3) Meretricandi. Some divide this word into two; and thus it fignifies, to pafs the
time -with mere trifling ; if it is to be read in one word, it fignifies, following after lewd
'women : but the firft feems to be the true reading.

body

454 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XI.

body as pofiibly he can. Or, if there be any body (as it often hap¬
pens) wounded, or that lias received hurt in doing his work, let him
apply Something to aSTwage his pain ; or, if there be any other in a
more weak and languishing condition, let him prefently convey him
to the infirmary, and give orders, that every other thing, convenient
and neceffary for his cure, be given him. But, of thofe who are in
a good Slate of health, no lefs care muft be taken, that their meat
and drink be given them without fraud, by thofe who have the charge
of the provifions. And let him always accuftom the Ruflics to eat
their meals in their Maher’s houfe, and by the fire appointed for the
ufe of fervants ; and let him eat his own meals within their view,
and be an example of frugality to them : neither let him fup leaning
upon a couch, except upon folemn holidays j and let him fo celebrate
the feftivals, as to bellow fome largefs upon the flouteft and molt
acflive and frugal among them : and let him fometimes admit them to
his own table, and vouchfafe to confer fome other honours alfo upon
them.

Let him alfo, upon idle days, review all the implements of Huf-
bandry, without which no work can be done; and frequently exa¬
mine, look into, and review the iron-tools : and let him always pur-
chafe them double ; and, having mended and repaired them from time
to time, let him keep them fafely, that fo, if any of them be damaged
while they are at work with them, there may be no neceflity of bor¬
rowing of a neighbour ; for there is more loft by diverting the fer¬
vants from their bufinefs, than the price of fuch things amounts to.

Let him keep the family rather neatly and profitably, than deli¬
cately cloathed ; that is, well fenced againft, and defended from the
colds and rains j both which are beft guarded againft by coats of Skins
with Sleeves, and frocks with hoods : and if this be done, they may
endure any winter-day whatfoever, when they are at work. Where¬
fore he ought to review, and count over, as well the fervants cloaths
as the iron-tools, as I faid before, twice every month : for a frequent
reviewing and taking an inventory of them, neither affords hope of
impunity, nor room for committing a fault. Therefore he ought
daily to call by name all the Slaves which are in bonds, and which
are condemned to prifon, or the houfe of correction (4), and examine

if

(4) After the "Romans had conquered Italy-, and many other countries, the mod power¬
ful amongft them got poiTeflions of lands imo their own hands, contrary ro the laws
formerly made for reftraining them from poffeffing above 500 jugera at moft : but they
frequently eluded thefe laws, and, under fidicious names, purchaled, or, by other means,
got into their pofleflion, vail trads of land, which they either let to others at a certain

rent,

4

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 455.

if they are carefully fettered ; as alfo if the place where they are in
cuftody be well fecured, and ftrongly fortified : neither let him, if
either his Lord, or he himfelf, has put any body in fetters, loofe them,
from their bonds, without the Mafter of the family’s exprels com¬
mand : let him not know what it is to offer facrifices, but by his
Lord’s direction. He fhall never willingly know, or have any ac¬
quaintance with any Diviner (5), or Sorcerefs, both which forts of
people difturb fimpls and ignorant minds with vain fuperflition.

He fhall not frequent the town, nor any fairs and markets, but in
order to fell or buy fome neceffary thing. Neither ought he to go’
out of the bounds of his own colony or farm, nor by his abfence give
the fervants opportunity and time to leave off working, and commit
mifdemeanours. Let him hinder all new paths, or new limits, to be
made in the land. Let him very rarely receive and entertain any
ftranger, except it be his Mailer’s intimate friends.. Let him not make
ufe of his fellow-fervants for any fervice of his own, nor allow any
(except great neceflity fhall force him) to go out of the bounds. Let
him not make ufe of his Mailer’s money, either for buying cattle, or
any other thing to fell again : for this thing diverts and withdraws the
Bailiff’s care from his proper bufinefs, and makes him rather a Trader
than an Hufbandman ; and never buffers him to balance accounts with
his Mailer, and pay him what he owes him : but, when he is required
to tell down the money, inflead of the cafh, the goods are produced.

rent, or cultivated them by vatl numbers of Haves, which they conftantly employed and
kept at their villas, where they commonly built an houfe they called ergafiulum , which,
according to its etymology, fignifies a niork-houfe , but was really a prifon : it was moftly
built under-ground, with fmall windows, and well fecured ; there they confined their
flaves, fometimes only in the night-time, and then led them out to work in the day¬
time. But our author feems to intimate, that they were defigned for naughty fervants,
who were confined there as a punifliment for crimes they had committed; and, no doubt,
were condemned to hard labour ; as grinding of corn, beating of hemp, &c. To thefe
places alfo they commonly confined, in the night-time, fuch of their Haves as they fu-
fpedted were inclined to run away. Thefe private prifons, as has been already faid, were
fo much abufed in after-times, that feveral Emperors thought fit to abolifh them ; it
having been found, that feveral innocent perfons, and even freemen, had been trepanned
into them, and kept as Haves therein, by the tyrannical and oppreflive proprietors of .the
fame.

(5) Arufpex , a Diviner: their bufinefs was to look into the.'entraib of their facrifices;
and from the appearances they made, viz. if the parts were found and intire, or de¬
cayed, or not in their natural pofition, or from the appearance of the flame when they
were burning, &e. to foretel good or bad fuccefs, &c. They were once in great efteem
at Home, and their difcipline, which was brought from Tufcany , was greatly reverenced
by the Romans : but, it Teems, our author had no great opinion of them, and looked
upon them as a pack of deceivers ; and advifes a Bailiff not to be acquainted with any
of them.

Therefore

456 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

Therefore he mu ft be obliged to avoid this, as much, indeed, as an
inclination for hunting and fowling is to be avoided j by which things
very many fervants are taken away from their proper bufinefs.

Alfo, he ought carefully to confider and obferve thofe things, which
with difficulty are obferved in greater governments, that he deal
neither too cruelly, nor too remifsly, with thofe that are fubjeft to
him ; and that he always cherifh the virtuous and the diligent, and
alfo fpare fuch as are not fo good and dutiful as they ought to be j
and that he ufe fuch moderation, that they may rather be afraid of
his feverity, than deteft and abhor his cruelty. And it will be in his
power to guard againft and prevent this, if he rather choofe to ule
precautions, that the Labourer may not commit a fault, than to punifh
him in the evening after he has committed it : for there is no furer
guard can be fet even upon the naughtieft man living, than the daily
exacting a certain talk of him : for that famous faying of Marcus
Cato is as true as an oracle, That by doing nothing men learn to do
evil. Therefore the Bailiff muft take care, that the talks be perform¬
ed ; and thefe things he will with no great difficulty obtain, if he
always make his appearance, and Ihew himfelf : for thus the Over-
feers of every particular fort of bufinefs will diligently execute their
offices j and the fervants, after having been kept hard at work, being
tired, will rather fet their minds upon their vi&uals, and upon reft
and fleep, than upon doing of mifchief.

Moreover, in every thing relating to Huffiandry, and in all rural
affairs whatfoever, as in all other affairs of life, the moft valuable
thing of all is, that every man ftiould be fenfible, that he is really
ignorant of what he knows nothing of, and be always defirous to learn
what he is ignorant of. For, tho’ knowledge is of great advantage,
neverthelefs imprudence, or negligence, does more hurt than it, viz.
knowledge , does good j efpecially in Huffiandry, of which art the
principal point is to have done, once for all, whatever the nature and
method of the culture fhall require to be done : for altho’ what is
done amifs, either through negligence or imprudence, may fometimes
be mended j neverthelefs, the Owner has already fuftained a prefen t
lofs : nor can the thing afterwards yield fuch an increafe, as both to
repair the lofs of the article that has been loft, and make up again
the advantage which would have redounded from it. Who is it that
doubts how irrecoverable time is, that maketh its efcape, and flideth
away before our eyes ? Therefore let him remember this, and always
beware, above all things, that, for want of forefight, he be not over¬
come by his work : for the bufinefs of Agriculture is moft infidious,

and

Chap. I. Of HUSBANDRY. 457

and apt to deceive a dilatory man : which very thing Hefiod , a moft
antient author, has more exprefsly intimated in this verl'e (6),

* The man, who, full of doubts, delays his work,

* With Ioffes always wreftles.’

Wherefore let the Bailiff be of opinion, that that common faying,
which Hulbandmen make ufe of, concerning the planting of trees,' viz.
Do not hejitate to plant, is to be applied to the whole culture of the
ground ; and believe, that not twelve hours are negledled and let pafs,
but that a year is loft, unlefs he do and finifh prefling bufinefs upon
its own day. For fince every thing ought to be done almoft in its
own proper moments, if one work be done later than it ought to have
been done, the other parts of Culture alfo, which follow, will be
entered upon too late, after their proper feafons are paft ; and the
whole order of the work being difturbed, and put out of its due
courfe, deprives you of the hope of the whole year. Therefore fuch
a directory, concerning the work and bufinefs of every month, as
depends upon the obfervation of the pofition and influence of the
flars of Heaven, is very neceffary j for, as Virgil fays (7),

‘ With as much care we muff obferve the flars,

‘ Ardlurus , and the Kids , and glift’ring Snake ,
c As they, who, homeward-bound, through flormy waves
‘ Of th’ Euxine fea, Abydus ’ narrow chops,

‘ Where breeds the purple-fffh, attempt to pafs/

Againft which obfervation I do not deny I have difputed with many
arguments, in thofe books which I wrote againfl Aflrologers. But,
in thefe difputations, inquiry was made into the truth of that which
the Chaldeans moft impudently affirm as a thing certainly to be de¬
pended on, That the changes of the air anfwer to certain ftated days,
as if they were confined within certain bounds. But, in this rural
difcipline, fuch fcrupulous nicenefs is not required : for the progno-
fticating the future weather, tho’ it be done but grofly and inartifi-

(6) He pod, Epf. 2. 31.

(7) Georg, lib. i. 204.

The ancients, as has been already faid, were of opinion, that the rifing and fertino- of
feveral ftars had a mighty influence upon all the fruits of the ground, and fome of them
they looked upon as mighty pernicious ; for which reafon Pliny calls them horrida fidera,
as Artturus , Orion > and the Kids , which they thought always produced florms and
tempefts.

N n n ciallv.

453 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

dally, as they fay, and not with that exadnefs as might be wifhed,
yet will be of as great advantage to the Bailiff as you can defire, if
he be fully perfuaded, that the ftar will have its due force and influ¬
ence, fometimes before, fometimes after, and fometimes alfo upon
the very day when it rifes or fets : for that man will be provident
enough, who {hall have it in his power to take precautions, and fecure
himfelf feveral days before, againft fufpeded weather.

CHAP. II.

What mujl he done every Months by accommodating all Sorts
of Work to the ‘Times and Seafons .

r"| Herefore we {hall give directions what mud be done every
j[ month (i), fo accommodating rural bufinefs to the times and
feafons, as the flate of the weather will allow j of the variety and

changes

(i) The antients were great obfervers of the heavenly bodies, and, from their obfer-
vations, they formed to themfelves certain rules for their guidance and direction in all
the different parts of Agriculture : they not only confidered the rifing and fetting of cer¬
tain conftellations, and particular ftars, as indications and figns when to begin plowing,
fowing, and other works of Husbandry, but they thought, that they had great influence
over the temperature of the air, and the fruitfulnefs of the earth : and tho’, at firft, they
only took notice of them as figns pointing out the times of the year, when heat or cold,
drinefs or moifture, are ufually predominant.; yet, in procefs of time, many began to
look upon them as the caufes of thefe qualities. But Columella was fo far from attribute-
ing fo great virtue to the ftars, that he compofed fotne books againft thofe Aftrologers,
who pretended certainly to foretel the changes of the weather : and all that he pretends
in this chapter is, to warn Husbandmen to be conftantly upon their guard; becaufe,
from a long feries of obfervations, made both by himfelf and others, there was reafon
to expefr, that fuch and fuch changes of weather would happen about the rifing or fet¬
ting of fuch and fuch ftars, not always indeed upon the very fame day, but fometimes
before, fometimes after : accordingly, in this chapter, he gives an account of the rifing
and fetting of fuch of them as he thought neceffary to be known for the purpofes of
Husbandry • and he has formed a calendar for the dire&ion of Husbandmen in every
part of it, throughout all the months of the year. And here it may not be amifs, for
the information of fuch as are unacquainted with fuch things, to tell them, th at the an-
tienc Aftronotners, in order to affift the memory to retain the number and difpofition of
the ftars, and to enable themfelves and others to fpeak intelligibly of them, and commu¬
nicate their thoughts to others concerning them, divided or reduced the ftarry firmament
to certain fyftems and collecftions of ftars, or conftellations, which they imagined or
fuppofed to reprefent the figures of fome real or imaginary animals, or of fome other
known vifible thing, and gave them names accordingly ; moft of which they borrowed
from the fabulous biftories of their gods, heroes, &c. By which contrivance, when¬
ever any mention is made of any of thefe conftellations, or of any particular ftar belong¬
ing to the fame, fuch as are acquainted with the celeftial fphsre, can as ealily turn their

thoughts

Chap. II. 0/ HUSBANDRY, 459

changes of which, if, from this brief account, the Bailiff fhall be
forewarned, he fhall either never be deceived, or, I am perfuaded,
not very often. And, that we may not depart from our excellent
Poet (2),

* When Spring begins, let him begin to till

‘ The ground.’

But an Hufbandman ought not to obferve the beginning of the new
Spring in the fame manner as an Aftronomer, fo as to wait for that
particular day, which is faid to begin the Spring ; but let him even
take in fome part of the Winter : becaufe after the fhorteft day is
paft, the year begins to grow warm, and a milder day permits him to
begin his works.

Therefore from the 13 th day of January, (that he may fhew re¬
gard to the firft month of the Roman year) he may aufpicioufly begin
the feveral parts of every fort of Culture, of which he fhall finifli
fome that have been already begun, and are not yet finifhed, and
begin others which belong to the future time. And it will be fuffi-
cient, that every work be finifhed towards the middle of each month :
for a work difpatched and finifhed fifteen days fooner than is needful,
cannot be faid to be done too much out of feafon ; nor, on the other
hand, can that which is done fo much later, be faid to be done too
late. The xiii of January is flormy windy weather, and an uncer¬
tain flate. The xv of January uncertain weather. On the xvi of

thoughts or their eyes towards them, as they can to fuch places of the earth where they
dwell, or are well acquainted with. Columella , in this chapter, mentions not all, but
many of thefe conftellations, and only tells us when they rife and fet, without any fur¬
ther defeription; fo that he fuppofes his readers to have fome knowledge of the celeftial
fphere, and which he did not think it his bulinefs to teach. Bur, as it is probable there
may be lome w’ho may have the curiofity to look into this chapter, who are not very
well acquainted with thefe things, perhaps it may not be unacceptable to them, to give
them an imperfect hint, from Aratus , Hyginus , and fome others, of the places of the
sphere wherein they are fituated, and of their fituation in refpedt of thofe that are near
them j and of the characters wherewith the twelve figns of the Zodiac, through which
the path of the Sun paffes, are commonly marked; and fometimes give the reafens of
the names of the conftellations, &c. and this without any order, but juft as they are
mentioned by the author : and, as the greateft part of the Latin names of the Conftella¬
tions are become familiar to our language, and are as eafily underftood as if they were
rendered into Englijb , it will not feem neceftary always to tranflate them ; and, probably,
it may be thought better frequently to retain them, and put the Englijb names after
them.

(2) Virg. Georg, lib. i. 43.

N n n 2

January

460 L, J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI,

January the Sun pafies into Aquarius (3) ; Leo (the Lion) (4) begins
to fet in the morning: a fouth-weft wind, fometimes a fouth wind,
with rain. The xvii of January , Cancer (the Crab) (5) leaves off
fetting : it is cold Winter-weather. The xviii of January , Aquarius
begins to rife : the fouth-weft wind is the fign of a ftorm. The xxii
of January , the bright ftar in the Harp (6) fets in the evening :
a rainy day. The xxiv of January forebodes a ftorm, from the fet¬
ting of the Conftellation Prijles (the Whale) : fometimes alfo there is
a ftorm. The xxvii of January , the bright Star which is in the
breaft of Leo fets : fometimes it is a fign, that the Winter is divided
into two parts (7). The xxviii, either the fouth, or fouth-weft wind
blows, cold Winter-weather : a rainy day. The xxx of January ,

(3) Aquarius, the Water-bearer, is the eleventh fign of the Zodiac: it is commonly
marked thus zs, which reprefents the wavy furface of the water, there being a certain
r umber of Scars in this Conftellation fo placed, as feem to have this appearance. Ara-
tus, and fome other antient Aftronemers, have reckoned about thirty Stars in this Con¬
ftellation. He has his feet fixed in the tropic of Capricorn , and ftretches out his left-
hand as far as the back of Capricorn , and with his right-hand almoft touching the mane
of Pegafus. Some fay, that this Conftellation had its name in memory of Ganymedes ,
who was cup-bearer to Jupiter ; others fay, that it was fo called in memory of Deu¬
calion, in whofe reign a great deluge of water happened.

(4) Leo, the Lion, is the fifth fign of the Zodiac, and is marked thus Si, which re¬
prerents the tail of the Lion, and, as fome fay, is an emblem of his courage, he lafhing
himfelf with his tail when he is angry : perhaps they, by this furious animal, intended to
exprefs the violent heat of the Sun, at the time when the Sun enters into this fign. He
is reprefented as looking towards the weft, and placed above the body of Hydra, from
its head to its middle parr, and divided by his middle by the tropic of Cancer ;
and as having his fore feet placed below the circle itfelf. The antient Aftronomers
reckoned about 19 Stars in this Conftellation.

(5) Cancer, the Crab, is the fourth fign of the Zodiac, drawn on the globe in the
figure of a Crab: it is marked with this character tS>. The learned Dr. -Lowg’s opinion
feems very reafonable, that the intention of the Inventor of this character was to re-
prefent the change of the Sun’s declination from north to fouth, by two lines drawn fo
as to point contrary ways. The circle that is parallel to the equinoctial, and pafies
through the beginning of this fign, is called the tropic of Cancer, or the northern tropic,
to which when the Sun comes, about the nth of June, it makes the Summer-folftice,
and he then turns his courfe back again towards the equator : they reckoned formerly
18 Stars in this Conftellation. It is reprefented as divided by the middle by the tropic,
of Cancer, and placed a litrle above the head of Hydra.

(6) Fidicula is the biggeft ftar in the Conftellation Lyra , or the Harp : fometimes by
authors it is put for the whole Conftellation.

(7) Hiems bipartita. If regard be had to the number of days, more than the half
of the Winter is now paft: but, it may be, Columella's meaning is, that, with refpedt to
the wea;her, or coldnefs of the feafon, the fetting of the bright Star in the breaft of
Leo fignifies, that only the half of Winter is paft j but the meaning of this expreftion
feems very dubious : however, it cannot be, that, according to the number of the days
they aftigned to the Winter, it was then divided into two equal parts.

Chap. II. Of HU SB AN DRY. 461

Delphinus (8) (the Dolphin) begins to fet alfo Fidicula (the Harp)
lets. The xxxi of 'January the fetting of the foremen tioned Stars
caufes a ltorm : fometimes it is only a lign of it.

We have run over this half month, and thole following, one after
another, by taking particular notice of, and mentioning the dorms,
that the more cautious Bailiff, (as I have already faid) may either abf-
tain from all manner of work, or make the greater difpatch. There¬
fore from the xiii of January , which is accounted to be the time
between the Winter folltice and the coming of the weftern breezes,
if you have a larger extent of vineyard, or of plantations of trees for
fupporting of vines, you mull return to prune that part which re¬
mained unpruned in Autumn, but fo that the vine may not be wounded
in the morning ; becaufe the firm-wood of it being as yet ft iff with
the hoar-frofls, and the nodturnal frofls, greatly dreads the iron-tool.
Therefore while you give it leave to thaw, till the fecond and third
hour of the day ; the thorn- and briar-hedges may be thinned, left
by their growth they incroach upon, and take up the land, the corns
may be weeded, the rods and fprays gathered into heaps, and, finally,
wood may be cut for fuel, that fo when the day grows warm, the
bufinefs of pruning may be carried on.

In places expofed to the Sun, and alfo in fuch as are lean and dry,
the meadows mult now be cleanfed, and preferved from the cattle,
that there may be plenty of hay. It is alfo a proper time to till dry
and fat lands ; but both fuch as are of an ouly and of a middling
habit, muff be fallowed in Summer but fuch as are very lean and
dry, muff be plowed after Summer in the beginning of Autumn, and
afterwards fown. But a jugerum of fat land, at this time of the year,
is very eafily plowed by two labourers ; becaufe the earth, being as
yet wet with the Winter rains, yields eafily to culture. And in the
fame month, before the lirit of February , the corns fown in Autumn
mult be farcied, whether they be of the feed of red-bearded hulked
wheat, which fome call our own Italian hulked wheat, or of com¬
mon wheat : and the proper time for farcling them is, when the corns
that are fprung up have begun to have four blades or leaves : and they
who have a Labourer to fpare from other work, ought now at length
to farcle the early barley alfo.

(S) Delphinus , the Dolphin } a Conftellaticn in the northern hemlfphere : it is repre-
fented not far from that called th c Eagle, with its head almoft touching the nofeorfnout
of Pegafus : it contains ten Stars : it rifes with the hinder-part of Sagittarius , and it fets
when the head of Virgo rifes : it confifts of ten Stars, according to the antients.

The

4 6 2 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

The bean alfo requires the fame culture, if now its ftalk be grown
up to the height of four inches : for it is not expedient to farcle it
before, while it is too tender. It will be better for us to fow vetches
the preceding moyth ; nor yet will it be amifs to fow them in this
verv month, or in the next: for Hufbandmen direct, that by no
means they ihould be committed to the earth in the month of March.
It is right now to dig vineyards, which are propped and fupported
with flakes, and tied. Such grafts or cyons, as bloffom firft, mu ft
be prefently grafted about the 13th of the month, as thole of cherry-
trees, inheres or peach-nuts (9), almond-trees, and peach-trees. It is a
fit time for making cloven vine-props, or pales on ftakes alfo : nor is it
lets proper for cutting down trees for buildings. But both thefe things
are better done when the Moon is decreafing, from the twentieth to
the thirtieth day ; becaufe all wood fo cut is thought not to be in-
fefted with carioufnefs. One workman can, in one day, cut down
one hundred pales or ftakes, and lop, fharpen, and point them : but
he can cleave, chip, and plain on both fides, and Iharpen ftxty oaken
or olive vine-props. Alfo he can by candle-light in the evening make
ten pales or ftakes, and five cloven vine-props j and the like number
by candle-light in the morning. If the wood be of oak, one Car¬
penter ought to hew perfectly well twenty feet fquare of it, and this
lhall make one load : but if it be of pine-tree, twenty-five feet fquare
may be as expeditioufly done by one man ; and this alfo is called a
load : as alfo of elm and afh xxx feet fquare : but of cyprefs-tree
xl feet. As alfo of the fir- or poplar-tree, every fingle workman may
hew perfectly well ftxty feet fquare ; and all thefe meafures are in
like manner called loads. In thefe days alfo the early lambs, and the
young of other cattle, and the larger four-footed beafts alfo, ought
to be marked with a branding iron.

The firft of February Fidis (the Harp) begins to fet : the wind is
eafterly, and fometimes it is a fouth-wind with hail. The iii of Fe¬
bruary all the Harp , aud the half of Leoi fet : the wind is north-
weft or north, and fometimes weft. On the v of February the mid¬
dle parts of Aquarius rife : windy ftormy weather. The vii of Fe¬
bruary the Conftellation Calijlo fets (10) : the wefterly winds begin to

blow.

(p) Tuberes: a kind of fruit-tree, brought out of Africa in the time of Auguflus.
pi ivy, lib. xv. c. 14. reckons it among pomiferous trees; and fays that its fruit "is but
finalf, and more like berries than apples. Father Hardouin fays, they call them in Prance
pefehes-noix (peach-nuts): they are mentioned in fome other parts of this work.

(io) Calijlo occidit. Antient authon call Vrfa major (the great Bear) by this name:
fhe was, as the Mythologifts fay, the daughter of Lycacn King of Arcadia ; and, being

by

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 463

blow. The viii of February , windy ftormy weather. The xi of
February the eaft-wind blows. Daring thefe days, in fuch places as
lie upon the fea-coafts, and are warm and dry, the meadows, or
arable lands, are cleanfed, and fet apart and kept for hay. Such
parts of vineyards as were omitted, and left unfinifhcd, becaufe of
the fhorteft: day, or the colds, muft: now be propped and tied, left
afterwards the fwelling buds be hurt, and the eyes bruifed and rubbed
off. Alfo in the fame places, the digging of the vineyards muft be
difpatched and finilhed, and both the lopping of the trees planted for
the fupporting of vines, and the binding of the vines to them, muft
be finiflhed ; of which things no certain talks can be affigned.

Then, between the yth and 13th, nurferies of apple-trees muft be
made, and the plants that are come to maturity muft be transferred
from the nurferies to trenches. The paftination alfo, which was
begun in the month of December , or of January , muft now be put
an end to, and planted with vines. But a jugerum of ground, if the
earth be digged down to the depth of three feet, is paftinated by
lxxx labourers in one day ; or, if it be digged to the depth of two
feet and an half, by L. Labourers ; or if to the depth of two feet,
by xl. Nevertheless, in dry land this is the leaft depth that the
paftinated ground muft have, where young ftocks or cuttings are to
be planted : for even' the depth of one foot and an half may fuffice
for any kind of pot-herbs that are to be planted in it, which, for the
moft part, is difpatched by thirty Day-labourers to each jugerum.

At this fame time a part of the dung muft be fpread upon the
meadows, and a part of it fprinkled round the olive-trees, and other
trees : as alfo nurferies of vines muft be carefully made, and moft
carefully planted with the very frefheft cuttings. Now it is profit¬
able to plant poplars, willows, and afh-trees, before they put forth
their leaves, and alfo elm-plants ; or to lop fuch as have been fet
before, and to dig round them, and cut off their uppermoft fmall
Summer-roots. You muft now alfo carry out of the corn-lands all
the fprays of the vines, while the vineyards are not yet digged, and
the branches of the trees that fupport the vines ; or briars j and, in a

by Diana changed into a bear, becaufe Hie had not preferved her virginity, Hie was by
Jupiter, who had debauched her, placed among the Stars, <&c. The 1'evcn principal
Stars of this northern Conftellacion are commonly called Charles’s wain, having four Stars
in the form of a parallelogram, which reprefent the wheel j and three lying almoft in a
ldraight line, which reprefent the beafts of draught , thele were the Stars they chiefly
took notice of: but in all, the antients reckoned twenty-one Srars therein. Hut, as this
Conftellation does not fet, it is probable the text is corrupted in this place, or that the
author means forne other Star by this word.

word,

464 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XL

word, whatever thing is lying upon the ground, and may hinder the
perfon that digs, or in any other way moves and labours the earth,
and lay them to an hedge : you muft plant new rofe-beds, or drefs the
old ones : you mull now plant nurferies of reeds, or cultivate the old
ones alfo j and make willow-groves, or lop, weed, and dig them :
and either fow broom-feed, or fet it in plants in trenched ground ;
or alfo in a furrow. Alio it is not improper to fow trimeftrian com
in this feafon ; altho’ in warm regions it is better to do it any time
in the month of January.

The xiii of February Sagittarius (the Archer) (11) fets in the even¬
ing : it is extremely cold Winter weather. The xiv of February
Crater (the Cup) (12) riles in the evening: the wind changes. The
xv of February the Sun pafles into Pi fees (the Filhes) (13) : fometimes
there is a llorm of wind. The xvii and xviii of February , it is a well
or fouth wind, with hail and Ihowers of rain. The xx of February
Leo (the Lion) ceafes to fet : the north winds, which are called Orni-
thian (14) are wont to continue for thirty days : then alfo comes the
fwallow. The xxi of February Arbi ur us rifes in the fore-part of the
night : the day is cold, with a north or north-well wind, and fome¬
times rain. The xxii of February , in the twilight in the evening,
Sagitta (the Arrow) begins to rife: variable weather (they are called
the Halcyon days) (if). In the Atlantic fea indeed, there is obferved

to

(11) Sagittarius, the Archer, is the ninth fign of the Zodiac, and it is marked with
this character J: . In old books he is reprefented as a Centaur, with a bow and arrow,
in a pofture of juft going to fhoot : he is placed from his feet to his fhoulders in the
circle of Capricorn , lb that his head feems to appear without the circle : his bow is di¬
vided by the circulus latleus, and, according to the antients, he conlifts of 15 Stars.

(12) Crater , the Cup, is a fmall Conftellation, confiding of eight Stars, placed above
the firft curvature of that great fouthern Conftellation called Hydra.

(13) Pipes, the 12th and laft fign of the Zodiack^ it is commonly marked thus X,
and, in fome old books, it is the picture of two fifties tied together back to back : one
of them is called the northern filh, becaufe it is placed between the equinodtial 3nd the
tropic of Cancer, under the arm of Andromeda , and looks towards the north : the other
is called the fouthein fift, and is placed in the extremity of the Zodiac, under the
fhoulders of the Ilorfe , and they are joined together with certain Stars like a fmall line,
from the firft foot of Aries : the fouthern fift has 17 Stars, and the northern 12,- and the
line of Stars that joins them are 12 in number.

(14.) Venti Or nit hi at. Pliny, lib. 2. c. 47. gives an account of Ete flan or anniverfary
winds, which, in different countries, blow from different quarters ; and fays, that when
they blow from the fouth-eaft they are called omit kite ■, probably becaufe with them came
fome birds, which change countries at certain feafons of the year, opus fignityin^ a
bird.

(15) Haley onei dies. Thefe days have their names from a certain bird they called hal-
cyone or halcedo , 7 0 Iv dh i ra-wV, as fome chink, becaufe it makes its neft, and hatches

its eggs in the fea, during which time it is very calm. Plivy fays, that the Halcyon days

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 465

to be the greateft: calm. The xxiii of February windy weather : the
fwallow is feen. Daring thefe days, in cold places, is the proper
feafon for the doing of thofe things we have already mentioned ; but
in warmer places, altho’ it is too late, neverthelefs it is neceffary. But
this feems to be the bell; feafon for planting cuttings and quickfets ;
neverthelefs, it is not worfe between the firft: and fifteenth of the fol¬
lowing month, provided the country be not exceeding hot : but, if it
be colder, it is even better. Alio, in moderately warm places, this
will be a convenient time for grading trees and vines.

On the firft: of March a fouth-weft: wind j fometimes a fouth wind
with hail. On the fecond of March Vindemiator (the Vintager) (16)
appears, which the Greeks call rgvynVg: northerly winds. The fourth
of March a weft wind, fometimes it is a fouth wind : it is very cold
weather. The vii of March cPegafus (the Horfe) (17) rifes in the
morning : a blaft of the north-eaft wind. The xiii of March the
northern Pifces leave off rifing : northerly winds. The xiiii of March
the fhip Argo (18) rifes : a weft or a fouth wind, fometimes a north-
eaft wind. In thefe days it is proper to put in order, and furnifh
gardens with every thing neceffary, of which I fliall fpeak more par¬
ticularly in their proper place, left, in this croud, as it were, of differ¬
ent forts of bufinefs,I fhould feem to have defcribedfomewhat too negli-

are about the time of the Winter-folftice, and that about feven days before that time
they make their nefts, and hatch their eggs about feven days after, and then the fea is
calm and navigable : he fays alfo, that this bird is a little larger than the fparrow • the
greateft part of it of a bright azure colour, with fome purple and white feathers inter¬
mixed, with a fmall long neck, and is feldom feen but at the fetting of the Pleiades, and
about the time of theSolftices; fo that, in the opinion of fome, it is not what is com¬
monly called the King's fijher. Gefnerus thinks, that thefe words arc an addition to the
text, and not originally of the author, but added as an explication of the text : perhaps
the author only meant, that they were only like the halcyon days becaufe of their calm-
nefs : tho’ they were not the Halcyon days properly fo called ■ for both Ariflotle and Pliny
fay, that they were feven days before, and as many after, the Winter-folftice.

(16) Vindemiator , Tpvynln?, by others called protrygeter , becaufe it rifech a little before
the vintage begins. It is a fixed Star of the third magnitude, in the right wing of Virgo.
Ovid , lib. iii. Fajl. mentions this Star j and tells us, that a certain boy, beloved of Bac¬
chus, being killed by a fall from a tree when he was gathering grapes, was tranftated into
Heaven, and transformed into this Star.

(17) Pegafut) the Horfe; a Conftellation of the northern Hemifphere, confifting of
23 Stars : he is reprefented as looking to the Arttic Circle, and with his feet leaning
upon the Tropic of Cancer , and feems to touch the Dolphin with the extremity of his
mouth, and with his neck as joining the right-hand of Aquarius.

( x 8) Argo , the fhip ; a Conftellation of the fouthern Hemifphere, confifting, accord¬
ing to the antient Aftronomers, of 23 Stars: with its hinder part it touches the Tropic of
Capricorn, and with its under part the tail of Canis major ; and then bends towards the
Antarctic Circle, which it touches : it fets when Sagittarius and Capricorn arife, and rifes
with Virgo and Libra.

O 0 o

gently

4.66 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XI.

gently the offices of a Gardener, or to have interrupted the order of
the other forts of culture, which I have now begun. Therefore from
the firft to the xxiii of March is an excellent time for the pruning of
vines, if, neverthelefs, the buds do not as yet move themfelves. This
is alfo the principal time for chufing, to beft advantage, cyons that
have not begun to bud, in order to graft withal ; and it is now by far
the very beft time for grafting both vines and trees. Alfo, in cold and
moift places, now is the principal time for planting of vines : alfo the
tops of fig-trees, that are now fwelling, are fet to moft advantage.
Alfo this is an excellent feafon for farcling corns a fecond time : one
Labourer farcies very well, in one day, as much corn-land as three
modii will fow.

Now is the proper time to cleanfe meadows, and to defend and
fecure them from cattle : in warm and dry places indeed, that ought
to be done even from the month of 'January , as we faid above j for
in cold places it is foon enough to fhut up meadows, and fet them
apart, for growth, at the feaft of Minerva (ip) : at this time you
muft prepare all the trenches wherein you defign to plant trees in
autumn ; if the ground be convenient, and eafy to work, one man
may make xiiii of them of four feet every way ; but xviii when they
are three feet. But for planting of vines, or trees of no great growth,
a furrow one hundred and twenty feet long, and two feet in breadth,
ought to be funk to the depth of two feet and an half, and one
Labourer will make it in one day. Now it is time to have finiffied
the digging and dreffing of your lateward rofe-beds : now it will be
proper to pour lees of oil, which have no fait in them, round the
roots of olive-trees that are in a bad ftate j fix congii fuffice for the
greateft trees, and an urn for thofe of a middling fize j for the reft a
proportional quantity muft be allotted. But even thofe which have
no defeat will thrive fo much the better, if they be watered with lees
of oil-olive that have no fait in them. Some have faid, that this is
the beft time for inftituting and forming of nurferies, and alfo have
directed to fow laurel and myrtle-tree berries, and the feeds of other
green things here and there, in fmall beds and gardens. The fame
perfons alfo have given it as their opinion, that the ftiff upright ivies,
and other ivy-trees, muft be planted foon after the xiii of February ,,
or the firft of March alfo.

(19) Quinquatribus. Quinquatria were feaft-days inftituted in honour of Minerva ;
fo called, as Ovid fays, becaufe they lafted five days ; or, as others, becaufe celebrated
the fifth day after the ides of Marcbi about the 19th or 20th of this month.

Upon

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 467

Upon the xv of March Nepa (the Scorpion) begins to fet, and is
the fign of a ftorm. The xvi of March Nepa (the Scorpion) fets : very
cold weather. The xvii of March the Sun palfes into Aries (the
Ram) (20): a weft or north-weft; wind. The xxi of March the
HorJ'e lets in the morning : northerly winds. The xxiii of March
Aries begins to rife: a rainy dayj fome times it fnows. The xxiv
and xxv of March , the vernal Equinox is the fign of a ftorm. From
the fifteenth the fame things, above-mentioned, muft certainly be
finithed. Now, and not before, is the beft: time for tilling oufy and
fat places : and fuch places as we fallowed in the month of January,
muft: be twifallowed in the latter end of March ; and if there be any
arbours of generous vines, or any fingle trees married to vines, either
in the fields or thickets, left by the Pruner, they ought certainly to
be pruned before the firft: of April ; after which day the culture of
fuch fort of things will be too late and fruitlefs. Alfo this is the firft:
time for fowing millet and panic, which ought to be finiftied about
the xiii of April : five fextarii of each feed take up one jugerum.
Alfo it is the fit time for caftrating woolly cattle, and other fourfooted
beafts : but in warm places, it is a right time for caftrating all cattle
whatfoever, from the xiii of February till the xiii of April ; and in
cold places, from the xv of March till the xv of May.

The firft of April , Nepa (the Scorpion) fets in the morning : it
fignifies a tempeft. The v of April , a wefterly or fouth wind with
hail : fometimes this fame thing happens the day before. The vi of
April the Pleiades (21) are hid in the evening : fometimes it is winter
weather. The vii, viii, and ix of April , the fouth and fouth-weft

(20) Aries , a Conftellation, drawn on the globe in the figure of a Ram ; it is the firft
of the 12 figns of the Zodiac, and marked thus T- He is reprefented as (landing in the
Equinodlial Circle, with his head turned to the eaft, and his rifing head is placed below
the Triangle, and with his feet almoft touches the head of the Whale: it confifts of 18
Stars. The Sun enters this Sign about the 10th of March , old ftyle, and makes the vernal
Equinox, his apparent diurnal motion being then in the Equator, when the night and day
are equal over the face of the whole earth. It is reckoned the beginning of the altro-
nomical year, becaufe it is the entrance into the Spring, when the face of the earth is
renewed, and the vegetables, that grow thereon, recover from the languifhing ftate into
which they were thrown by the coldnefs of the Winter; and many of them, which
feemed to be intirely dead, rife again, as it were, and recover a new life ; and the ani¬
mals, which feemed to decline apace, and tend towards a diflolution, by the returning
of the warmth of the Sun, have new vigour and life communicated to them : from that
time the Sun appears to decline more and more towards the north, till the Summer be¬
gins about the 1 ith of June. It is probable, that the antients intended, by this prolific
animal, to reprefent the genial fertilizing warmth of the Sun in the Spring.

(21) Pleiades , by the Romans called Vergilia, are a duller of fmall Stars in the neck
of the Bull : thefe have been already mentioned in the ixth and books.

O O 0 2

winds

468 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XL

winds fignify a florm. The x of April , when the Sun rifes, Libra
(the Balance) begins to fet: fometimes it is a fign of a florm. The
xii of April , the Hyades (22) are hid: it is exceeding cold, as in
Winter. In thefe days the firft digging of vineyards, in cold places,
muft certainly be finished before the xiii ; and fuch things as ought to
have been done in the month of March , after the equinox was paft,,
muft now, at length, be done as foon as poffible. It is yet a right
feafon to ingraft fig-trees and vines : nurferies, which are made be¬
fore, may be, as yet, very conveniently weeded and digged. Taren -
tinian fheep ought to be wafhed with foapwort-root (23), that they
may be prepared for {hearing.

The xiii of April Libra (24) fets, as above : it is very cold. Tho
xiiii of April , a ftorm of wind and fhowers j nor does this conflantly
happen. The xvii of April the Sun pafifes into Taurus (the Bull) (27) :
it is a fign of rain. The xviii of April the Hyades hide themfelves in
the evening : it is a fignification of rain. The xxi of April divides
the Spring into two parts (26) : it is rain, and fometimes hail. The
xxii of April , the Pleiades rife with the Sun : a fouth-weft or fouth
wind ; a moift day. The xxiii of April , in the beginning of the
night, Fidi cula (the Harp) appears : it is the fign of a ftorm. The
xxviii of Aprils the wind is almoft fouth, with rain. The xxix of

(22) Hyades are five Scars in the Bull's face ; fo called by the Greeks-, perhaps, becaufe
they thought they had great influence to produce rain : by the Romans they were called.
Sucula , from a wrong interpretation of their Greek name, as has been already faid.

(23) Radix lanaria. It is highly probable, that the plant, the juice of whofe root
our author recommends for whitening wool, is what is called faponaria, foapwort. Pliny,-
fays, that it is wonderful how effectual the juice of this root is for wafhing and whiten¬
ing wool, and making it fofc, which is the reafon why it is called radix lanaria.

(24.) Libra, the Balance, or the Scales; one of the 12 Signs of the Zodiac, the feventh
in order, exaCtly oppolite to Aries j it is commonly marked thus tfi, which is the beam,
of the balance. It is probable, that the antients made ufe of this mark to fhew, that
when the Sun enters into this Sign, about the 12th of September, he diftributes day and.
night equally to all the earth ; and this is called the autumnal Equinox.

(25) Taurus , the Bull, the fecond Sign of the Zodiac, marked thus d, to reprefent
the head and horns of the Bull-, the Equinoctial Circle divides his knees from the reft of
his body, and with his left horn he is joined with the left foot of Auriga : befides the
Vergilia: , already mentioned, it confifts of 14 Stars, five of which on his face are, as has
been faid, called Hyades.

(26) Ver bipartitur. Varro, lib. i. c. 28. fays, that the Spring begins about the 12th
of February , and has ninety-one days ; fo that according to this computation, the twenty*
firft of April does not divide the Spring into two equal parts : but it is probable, that
Columella only means, that, if regard be had to the weather, the half only of the Spring
is paft ; but, with refpeCt to the number of days, more than the half is paft : for, accord¬
ing to Varro, the Summer begins about the nth of May ; but here the author’s mean¬
ing, to me, feems not very plain.

Aprils

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 469

April, Capra (the Goat) (27) rifes in the morning : the wind is fouth
the whole day ; fometimes rains. The xxx of April, Canis (the
Dog) (28) hides himfelf in the evening : he fignifies a temped:. During
thefe days we will profecute the things above-mentioned ; and olive-
trees, if they have now (lackened their back, may either be ingrafted
or inoculated ; and other pomiferous trees may be grafted with the
fame kind of emplaftration or inoculation. It is alfo right to begin to
fhred off the fuperfluous leaves and twigs for the firft time, while the
buds that are creeping forth by little and little, can be ftruck off with
the finger. Moreover, if the Digger has put any things in the vine¬
yard out of their due place, or by negligence omitted any things, the
diligent Vine-drefler ought to refiore it ; and to obferve and take
notice of the broken frames, and repair them, or replace the poles or
flakes that are thrown down, fo as he may not pull off the tender
buds or leaves. At the fame time cattle that are fruitful, and have
brought forth their young, mud be marked (29).

The fird of May, during thefe two days the Sun is faid to keep in
one particle or degree of the Ecliptic. The ii of May , one of the
Hyades rifes with the Sun : northerly winds. The iii of May , the
whole Condellation Centaur us (30) (the Centaur) appears: it is the
fign of a temped. The v of May the fame Condellation forebodes

(27} Capra, a She-goat ; a bright fixed Star in the left fhoulder of Auriga (the Waggoner) ;
its longitude 77 degr. 16 min. lat. 22 degr. 50 min. The Poets tell us. that this was the
goat which fuckled Jupiter in Crete : in recompence, Jupiter transformed her into this
Star.

(28) Canis major, a Conftellation of Stars, drawn on the globe in figure of this ani¬
mal ; by his hinder-feet he is divided by the tropic of Capricorn ; with his head he alrnoft
foins the right foot of Orion ; he looks with his head to the weft, but ftretches his head
to the Equinoctial Circle : he fets when Sagittarius rifes, and rifeth with Cancer. He has
in his mouth that vaft Star by fome called Canicula , the true name of which feems rather
to be Sirius: this Conftellation confifts of 19 Stars. One would think, that the Con*
ftellation Canis minor ought rather to be called Canicula.

(29) Pecudes fcecundi partus : this is the reading in fome editions; in others it is fecujidi
partus: it is uncertain which is the true reading: I have followed the former; if the
latter be right, then the meaning probably is, that fuch cattle as have brought forth a
fecond time, ought to be marked ; or perhaps the author means, that fuch cattle, as were
brought forth at the fecond birth, were the ftrongeft and the beft, and therefore ought
to be marked : but the meaning feems very uncertain.

(30) Centaurus , a Conftellation of the fou'.hern Hemifphere: he is reprefented as lean*
ing with his feet on the Antarttic Circle, and as feeming to fupport with his flioulders
the Tropic of Capricorn , and with his head alrnoft joining the tail of Hydra : they alfo
reprefent him as holding fome wild beaft fupine in his right-hand, which with its feet
and fnout touches the Tropic of Capricorn ; being placed between him and the Antarctic
Circle, the Circulus Laffeus divides the legs of the Centaur from the reft of his body. He
fets wholly when Aquarius and Pipes rile, and rifeth with Scorpio and Sagittarius : he
confifts of 34 Stars. The Mythologifts tell us, that this is the famous Chircn , who taught
JEfculapius Pbyfic, and was Tutor to Achilles .

jam*.

470 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XI.

rain. The vi of May the middle of Scorpio fets : it forebodes a ftorm
The vii of May the ‘Pleiades rife in the morning : a weft wind. The
ix of May Summer begins : a weft or north-weft wind ; fometimes
rain alfo. The x of May all the Pleiades appear : a wefterly or north-
weft wind, and fometimes rains. The xiii of May Fidis (the Harp)
riles in the morning, and forebodes a ftorm. During thefe days the
corns muft be weeded; and they muft begin to cut down and make
the hay. A good Labourer cuts down a jugerum of meadow in one
day ; and one Labourer alfo binds one thoufand and two hundred
bottles of hay, weighing four pounds each. It is alfo the time to dig
round the trees that have been ablaqueated, and to cover them : one
Labourer will be able to dig round eighty young trees in a day, fixty-
five of a middling fize, and fifty large ones.

This month you muft dig all your nurferies frequently : but, from
the firft of March to the xiii of September , you muft beftow a digging
every month, not only upon nurferies, but upon new vineyards alfo.
During the fame days, where the weather is very cold and rainy, olive-
trees are pruned and cleared from mofs : but, in warm regions, you
do this at two times of the year ; the firft time, from the xv of Odlober
till the xiii of December , and the fecond time from the xiii of February
to the xv of March , provided neverthelefs, that the tree does not
flacken its bark. In this fame month is the laft feafon for fetting
an olive-cutting in a paftinated nurfery ; and when you fet it, you
muft fmeer it over with dung and afhes mixed together, and place
mofs upon it, left it be cloven with the heat of the Sun. But this
fame work will be better done in the latter end of the month of
March , or in the beginning of the month of April ; and at other
times wherein we diredled you to plant nurferies, either with plants or
branches.

The xv of May Fidis (the Harp) rifes in the morning : a fouth or
fouth-eaft wind ; fometimes it is a moift day. The xvi of May the
fame as above. The xvii and xviii of Mayy a fouth-eaft or fouth wind
with rain. The xix of May, the Sun makes his entry into Gemini (i)
(the Twins). The xxi of May the Hyades arife : northerly winds j
fometimes a fouth wind with rain. The xxii and xxiii of May

(i) Gemini, the Twins; one of the 12 Signs of the Zodiac, the third in order, and
marked thus It. Probably the antients’, to reprefent the fraternal affedtion of Cajlor and
Pollux , put together two logs of wood, and joined them by two crofs pieces. They
feem to be placed toward the right fide of Auriga , above Orion ; their heads are divided
from the reft of their body by the Tropic of Cancer: they fet upright upon their feet,
and rife inclined, as if they were lying: this Conftellation coniifts of 18 Stars.

ArSturus

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 471

Artfurus fets in the morning : it fignifies a ftorm. The xxv, xxvi,
and xxvii of May , Capra (the Goat) rifes in the morning : northerly
winds. From the xv of May to the firft of June , you muft dig your
old vineyard a fecond time, before it begins to bloffom, and, at the
fame time, fhred off all the fuperfluous buds and leaves from the fame,
and all the reft of your vineyards ; which if you do frequently, a boy,
with one day’s labour^ will pampinate a jugerum of vineyard. In fome
countries they now (hear their Iheep, and take an account of what
young cattle they have bred, and what are loft. Alfo he who fows
lupins, in order to dung the land therewith, now at length turns them
up with the plough.

On the firft and fecond of June Aquila rifes : a ftorm of wind,
and fometimes rain. The vii of June ArBurus fets : a weft or north-
weft wind. The x of June Delphinus rifes in the evening : a weft
wind *, fometimes there falls a dew. In thefe days, if we have been
overcome by our work, the fame things mult be done, which ought
to have been done in the latter end of the month of May : alfo all
fruit-bearing trees, having -been digged round, ought to have new
earth laid to, and heaped up about their roots, that that work may be
finilhed before the Solftice. Moreover, according to the ftate and con¬
dition of the country and climate, the earth is either cut up for the
firft time, o.r twifallowed; and, if it be difficult to labour, a jugerum
of it is cut up, for the firft time, by one Labourer in three days,
twifallowed in two, and fallowed a third time in one day j but one
Labourer will roll and break the clods of two jugera in one day. But,
if the ground be eafy to labour, a jugerum is tilled by one Labourer
in two days, twifallowed in one; and four jugera harrowed, and fur¬
rows drawn in them, with one day’s labour ; from which reckoning
we infer, that during the Autumn, one hundred and fifty modii of
wheat may be eafily fown by one yoke of oxen, and one hundred
modii of any kind of pulfe.

In thefe fame days the threfhing-floor muft be prepared, that every¬
thing, as it (ball be cut down, may be brought into it. The culture
alfo of vineyards, which are of a greater extent, ought to be per¬
formed a fecond time. Before the Solftice, fodder (if you have any
ftore of it) mult be given to the cattle either now, or even the fifteen
days preceding the firft of June : but, from the firft of June , if
green grafs is now wanting, till the latter end of Autumn, we muft
cut 'Jown boughs and leaves of trees, and give them. On the xiii of
June the heat begins. The xix of June the Sun makes his entry
into Cancer ; it forebodes a ftorm. The xxi of June Serpentarius s.

472 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

which by the Greeks is called <l<piy%6$ (2), fets in the morning : he
fignifies a dorm. On the xxiv, xxv, and xxvi is the Soljiice (3) : a
weft wind, and heat. In thefe days the fame things muft be done,
as I direded above : but you muft cut down vetches for fodder before
the pods are hardened ; reap barley, pull up lateward beans, threfh
early-ripe beans, and lay up their chad carefully ; threfh barley, and
lay up all its draw and chad' 5 cadrate the bee-hives, which you ought
from time to time to view, and cure every ninth or tenth day, to the
fird of May. But now, if the honey-combs are full, and have covers
or lids upon them, they mud be cut down : but if they are, for the
mod part, empty, and open, without lids or covers, it is a fign, that
they are not yet ripe ; therefore the gathering and making of the
honey mud be deferred. In the provinces beyond fea, fome fow their
fefam-feeds either in this or the following month.

The fird of July , a wed or a fouth-wed wind, and heat. The
iv of July Corona (4) (the Crown) fets in the morning. The vi of
July the middle of Cancer (the Crab) fets : a great heat. The viii of
July the middle of Capricornus fets. The ix of July Cepbeus (y)

fets

(2) Anguifer or Ophiuchus , commonly called Serpent arms ; a Conftellation of the nor¬
thern Hemifphere: he is reprefented as leaning backward with his head, and holding a fer-
pent in his hands, and the greateft parr of which he fupports with his left arm : his fhoul-
ders are divided from the reft of his body by theTropfc of Cancer ; and towards his
knees he is terminated by the Equinodiial : with his left he treads upon the eyes of the
Scorpion , and with his right he leans upon his back j and the ferpenr, which is held by
him, with the extremity of its mouth almoft touches the Crown, and twifts itfelf round
his middle, and with the extremity of its tail joins the Equinoctial line with the tail of
the Eagle : when he riles, he appears with Scorpio and Sagittarius , and fets when Gemini ,
Cancer , and Leo arife. The Poets tell us, that this is Afculapius the fon of Apollo, who,
being by Jupiter ftruck with a thunder-bolt, becaufe, by his skill in Phyfic, he had raifed
the dead to life, was afterwards, at the requeft of Apollo , tranflated into the heavens.
This Conftellation confifts altogether of between -50 and 40 Stars.

(3) Columella , as has been Paid, places the Sun’s entry into the feveral figns later by
feveral days than it really happens j and here he reckons the Summer-folftice to be about
the 24th of June, according to the antient computation then in ufe among Husband¬
men but, according to the corrections made in the Calendar, the Summer-folftice falls
about the nth of June.

(4) Corona borealis , the northern Crown,* a Conftellation, confiding of about 20 Stars :
nine of them are placed circularly, fo as to reprelent a Crown. Bootes feems almoft to
touch the Crown with his left fhoulder, and Engonap.n, or Hercules kneeling, joins it with
the heel of his right foot : it fets when Cancer and Leo rife, and rifes with the Scorpion.
The Poets tell us, that this is the crown of gold and precious ftones made by Vulcan,
which Bacchus gave to his bride Ariadne, daughter of Minos King of Crete. No doubt
the Aftronomers, who divided the Stars into Conftdlations, took this name out of fome
hiftory of Crete, which gave an account of this marriage.

(5) Cepheus , a Conftellation in the northern Hemifphere, confiding of about 2oStars:
he is placed behind the LeJJer Bear : from his feet to his breaft he is inclofed within
the Arttic Circle, fo that nothing of him is feen to fet, except his thoulders and his

head :

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDR Y. 473

fets in the evening: he forebodes a ftorm. The x of July the Har¬
binger or Forerunner winds (6) begin to blow : in thefe days the latne
tilings to be done as above. But it is alio very proper now to twi-
fallow fuch fallow ground, as has been tilled for the firft time; and,
when the Moon is upon the decreafe, wood-land is grubbed up to very
great advantage. The xv of July Procyon (the Lefler Dog) (7) rifes
in the morning : he fignifies a {form. The xx o £ July the Sun paffes
into Leo : a weft wind. [The xxiv of July the bright Star in the
bread of Leo rifes] : fometimes it is the fign of a ftorm. The xxv
of July Aquarius (the Water-bearer) begins to fet bright and clear :
a welt or fouth wind. The xxvi of July the Canicule appears : a ful try
hot fog. The xxvii of July Aquila (the Eagle) rifes. The xxix of
July the bright Stars in the bread of Leo arife : fometimes this is the
fign of a dorm. The xxx of July Aquila fets : it forebodes a
dorm.

In thefe days the harved is finiihed, in places that are temperate,
and lie near the fea; and, within thirty days after the corns are cut
down, the dubble is cut down, and gathered together into heaps :
one Labourer cuts down a jugerum of dubble in one day, which be¬
ing removed before the violent heat of the Sun fcorches the earth, you
mud dig round all the trees that were in the corn-land, and heap up
the earth round them. Alfo they who make preparation for the feed¬
time, in order to fow a great quantity, ought now to plow their land
a fecond time : for, as to digging and cultivating new vineyards, I have
already often faid, That no month ought to be omitted, till the autumnal

head ; he is nor far diftan' from the winding tint the Dragon feems firft to make with
his head: he is reprefented with both his arms projected, and is as far diftant from the
feet of the Lejfer Bear , as tire fpace between his own feet feems to be : his head feems
to fee when the Scorpion rifes, and to rife with Sagittarius. This Cepheus is faid to have
been a King of the Ethiopians , and father of Andromeda, whom Perfeus refeued from
the fea-m miter to which the was expoled ; a ftory much celebrated bv Poets and Painters.
From this hiftory, Aftronomers have taken ntmes for fome other Conftdlations conti-
<nious to, or not far did ant from this; as CajJiop',a , Andromeda , and Perfeus.

(6) Prodromi fare incipiunt. Pliny fays, that, about eight days before the riling of the
Dog far, the rioith-eaft winds begin to blow; and, becaufe they come before the rifin<j
of this Srar, they are called the Forerunners or Harbingers.

(7) Procyon , or Anticanis. The Lefler Dog is io called, becaufe he rifes before
Canis major (the CL eater Dog) he with his feet fixed in the Circulus Laffeus touches the
Kquinodfial : he looks to the weft, as placed between Gemini and Cancer: he fets when
Capricorn rifes, and rifeth with Let; accotdmg to Hyginus , de (ignis coelefibus, it is a
final! Conftellation, confiding of three Stars, an! muff be confidered as different from
that vaft bright Star in the mouth of Canis major , which is commonly called Canicula ,
the Dog-ftar, and tho’ but one lingle Srar, yet take, the name of the whole Conlte'la-
rion Pliny, and fome other authors, feetn to take Procyon and Canicula for one and
the fame S ar, bat our author mentions them as different.

pP P

Equinox

47+ L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

Equinox be paft. But we muft remember, that, during thefe days,
and the days of the month of Auguji , early in the morning, and in the
evening, we cut down boughs and leaves for the cattle ; alfo what¬
ever vineyards we defign to cultivate, that we do not dig them during
the great heat, but in the morning, till the third hour of the day,
and from the tenth hour till the evening.

In fome countries, as in Cilicia and Pamphylia , they fow fe fame-
feeds in this month : but, in the moift regions of Italy, they may be
fown in the latter end of the month of June. It is alfo the time for
hanging branches of wild fig-trees (8) upon fig-trees j which fome
think ought to be done for this reafon, that the fruit may not fall off
them, and that it m.ay come the more fpeedily to maturity.

The firft of Auguji the Etefian winds blow (9). The iv of Au¬
guji the middle of Leo rifes : it forebodes a ftorm. The vii of Au¬
guji the middle of Aquarius fets : a foggy heat. The xii of Au¬
guji Fidis (the Harp) fets in the morning, and Autumn begins. In
thefe days the fame things are to be done as above : neverthelefs, in
fome places they cut down the honey-combs, which if they are not
full of honey, nor have lids upon them, the gathering and making of
the honey muft be deferred till the month of Odlober. The xiii of
Auguji the letting of Delphinus is the fignification of a ftorm. The
xiv of Auguji , the fetting of the fame Conftellation in the morning
forebodes a ftorm. The xx of Auguji the Sun pafles into Virgo (10):
it forebodes a tempeft in this and the following day ; and fometimes

(8) Pliny , lib. xv. c. 19. tells us, that they ufed to haften the ripening of figs, by take-
ing branches of the wild fig-tree, which itfelf never produces fruit, and hanging them
amongft the fig-trees ; and that thefe branches did produce a certain fort of flies, which,
when the branches began to rot, being deprived of their natural nourifhment, left them, and
flew to the fig-trees, and fed greedily upon the figs, and, with their bite opening the tops
of the figs, gave free entrance to the Sun, and the ripening bree2.es j and fucked out the
acid milky juice of the young figs, and thereby haftened their ripening. Pa/ladius ,
fpeaking of the fame thing, advifes to take wild figs, and, putting a flaxen rope through
them, hang them up among the fig-trees : this the Romans called caprif ratio. -

(9) Etefue , anniverfary winds, formed from the Greek word £T®v which fignifies a
year : they are north-eaft winds, which blow yearly about this time in Summer.

(10) Virgo , one of the 12 Signs of the Zodiac, the fixch in order j it is marked thus ffC.
In fome old books fhe is reprefented as holding three ears of corn in her left-hand, for
which reafon fhe is fuppofed to reprefent Ceres ; but Aratus and others fay, that this
Si<m reprefents Juftice, which, abhorring the wickednefs of mankind, forfook the earth,
and retired to heaven. She is placed below the feet of Bootes : with her head fhe touches
the hinder-part of Leo , and with her right-hand the Tropic of Cancer ; the lower part of
her body is feen above the Raven, and the tail of Hydra : fhe fets with her head before
the reft of her members. This Conftellation confilfs of id or 18 Stars, one of which
in her right-wing, fixed to her fhoulder, is called Vindemiator , the Vintager, and by the
Greeks called Protrygeter ; probably becaufe it rilerh before the vintage, as has been
already faid.

Chap. II. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 475

it thunders. This fame day Fidis (the Harp) fets. The xxiii of Au¬
guji , from the fame Conftellation, for the mod part, a ftorm arifeth,
and rain. The xxvi of Auguji Vindemiator (the Vintager) rifes in
the morning, and Ardiurus begins to let : it is fometimes rain. The
xxx of Auguji the llioulders of Virgo appear : the Etejian winds ceafe
to blow, and fometimes it is Winter-weather. The xxxi of Augufi
Andromeda (i 1) rifes in the evening : fometimes it is very cold, as in
Winter.

And in thefe days f g-trees are inoculated, which kind of ingrafting
is called Emplajlration (12) : and this, indeed, may be done more
conveniently in the preceding month, after the xv of July, in which
time fome inoculate other trees alio. In fome places the vintage is
£ nilhed, as in Bcetica , in the regions that lie upon the fea-coaft, and
in Africa: but in colder regions they make their Pulverisation (13),
which Ru flics call Harrowing , when every glebe in the vineyards is
broken, and reduced into powder. At this fame time, before the
vineyards are pulverized, if the vines themfelves are very fmall or
thin, three or four modii of lupins are fcattered upon each jugerum,
and harrowed in ; which being turned up with the firft digging, after
they have fprung up into ftalks, afford dung good enough for vine¬
yards.

Many alfo, if the conftitution of the climate be rainy, as in that
region of Italy which lies contiguous to the city, ftrip the vine of its
young fhoots and leaves, that the fruit may be throughly concodted
and ripened, and not rot with the Ihowers. But on the contrary, in
warmer places, as in the provinces juft now named, about the time of
the vintage, the grapes are overfhadowed either with draw, or other
coverings, that they may not wither, and be dried up by the winds
or heats. This fame time is alfo proper for making dry grapes and
£gs, of which, after what manner they may be dried in the Sun, we
lhall afterwards give an account, when we (ball treat of the offices of

(11) Andromeda , a northern Conftellation, confiding of 20, or, as oihers fay, of 27
Stars : fhe is reprelented as placed near Cajfiepea, above the head of Perjeus, there being
a fmall diftancc between them : her head is joined to the belly of the Horfe Pegafus, the
fame Scar being called the navel of Pegafus , and the bead of Andromeda , the Tropic of
Cancer paffes through and divides her bread, and her left-hand by the middle : flie rifes
with the figns Pifcis and Aries.

(12) Emplafi ratio : of this way of ingrafting amongft the aritients, you have an account
lib. v. c. 11.

(13) Pulveratio. Pliny , Theophrafus , and others, recommend the pulverizing of vines,
in order to plump and ripen the fruit: it is digging the vineyards when the ground is
very dry, breaking the clods, and railing the dull. Vide lib. iv. 28. and Palladius ,
Jim. 7. 2.

p p P 2

the

476 L.J.M. COLUMELLA BookXI.

the Bailiff’s wife. It is right alfo to extirpate fern or fedge in the
month of Auguft , where-ever they grow : neverthelefs, it is- better to
do it about the xv of July, before the rifingof the Dog-flar. The fir ft
of September, hot weather. The ii of September, the fou them Pi f'cls
ceafes to let : hot weather. The v of September Arclurus riles : a weft
or north-weft wind. The vii of September the northern Pifcis ceafes
to let, and Capra rifes : it is the fign of a ftorm. The xi of September
a weft or fouth wind ; the middle of Virgo rifeth. In thefe days, in
places that lie upon the fea-coaft, and are warm, it is a convenient
time for carrying on the vintage, and managing the other things above-
mentioned. Alfo twifallowing the plowed land ought then to be
finilhed, if the ground has been tilled, for the firft time, fomewhat
too late ; but, if it has been tilled fooner than ufual, it is proper alfo,
that the ground be plowed a third time. At this time alfo they, who
are accuftomed to preferve wines, prepare fea-water, and, after they
have brought it home boil it : concerning the preparing of which I
fhall give directions, when I come to treat of the offices of a Bailiff’s
wife. The xiii of September fometimes lignifies a tempeft, from the
Conftellation they call the Whale (14). The xvii of September Ar~
Bums rifes : a weft or fouth wind ; fometimes an eaft wind, which
fome call Vulturnus. The xviii of September Spica Virginis (the ear
of corn in the left-hand of Virgo ) rifes : a weft or north- welt wind.
The xix of September the Sun paffes into Libra Crater (the Cup)
appears in the morning. The xxi of September Pi fees (the Fifties) fee
in the morning ; alfo Aries (the Ram) begins to fet: a weft or north-
weft wind ; fometimes a fouth wind with fhowers. The xxii of Sep¬
tember the fhip Argo fets : it forebodes a ftorm, fometimes rain alfo.
The xxiii of September Centaurus (the Centaur) begins to rife in the
morning : it forebodes a ftorm, and fometimes rain. The xxiv, xxv,
and xxvi of September , the autumnal equinox forebodes rain. The
xxvii of September Hcedi (the Kids) arife (if) : a weft wind, fome¬
times a fouth wind, with rain. The xxviii of September Virgo ceafes
to rife : it forebodes a ftorm.

In thefe days they gather their grapes, and make their vintage, in
many countries. Some take the indication of their being ripe from

(14) Cetus , the Whale; otherwife called Prifles, or Priflinutn pdus\ a Conftellation in
the fouthern hemifphere, confiding of 13, or, as others lay, of 23 Stars. The Tropic of
Capricorn divides its tail by the middle; with its fnout it almoft joins the hinder foot of
Aries ; the river Eridanus almoft wafhes the fore-part of its body : it lets when Cancer
and Leo rife, and rifes with the Centaur and the Tvdns.

f ; 5) Ha’di, the Kids, are two Stars in the left-arm of Auriga, the Waggoner, which is
a Conftellation in the northern hemifphere, under the feet of Perfeus.

one

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 477

one thing, fome from another. Some, when they had feen fome part
of the grape grow mellow, have believed, that the time of vintage
was come, and that the grapes were ripe for gathering : fome, after
they have obferved them to be difcoloured and tranfparent : fome alfo,
when they had obferved the ftnall twigs and leaves to fall off: all
which things are fallacious ; becaufe all thefe lame things may happen
to unripe grapes, by reafon of the excefiive heat of the Sun, or in-
tcmperatenefs of the year. Therefore fome have attempted to find
out when they are ripe by their tafte, that whether the talfe of the
grape was lweet or four, they might judge accordingly. But even
this thing itfelf has fome fallacy : for fome kinds of grapes, becaufe
of their too great roughnefs, never con trad; any fweetnefs. There¬
fore it is proper (which we do) to confider the natural maturity itfelf:
and this is the natural maturity, if the kernels or grape-ftones, which
are hid in the grapes, when you have lqueezed them out of them,
are of a dufky colour, and fome of them almoft black : for nothing
whatfoever can give a colour to the kernels or grape-ftones, except
the natural ripenefs ; efpeciaily confidering, that they are fo placed in
the middle part of the grapes, that they are protected both from the
violent heat of the Sun, and from the winds ; and the moifture itfelf
does not fuller them to be throughly ripened, or reduced to a dufky
colour, except by their own very nature itfelf : therefore, when the
Bailiff fhall be fure of this, let him know, that he mult begin his
vintage, and gather his grapes.

But, before he begins to gather the fruit, all things mult be prepared
(if it can be done) in the preceding month ; if not, that, at lead fifteen
days before, the hogfhead be partly pitched, partly rubbed, and care¬
fully wafhed with lea-water, or faked water, and rightly dried; as
alfo the covers and (trainers, and the other tilings, without which the
mult cannot be well managed ; and that the wine-prefies and tabs
be carefully cleaned, and wafhed, and pitched, if the matter fo re¬
quire : and let him have wood prepared, wherewith he may boil the
mult, either into a third or an half of the firlt quantity, for making
rob of grapes. As alfo fait, and perfumes, and fweet fpices, with
which they ufe to give a relilh to, and preferve wines, mult be laid
up in (tore a good while before.

Neverthelefs, let not this care call him wholly off from the other
parts of Hulbandry : for, during thefe days, both navew- and turnep-
beds are made in places that are naturally dry. Mifcellany alfo, which
will be a great fupport to cattle during Winter, and alfo that hufk or
pod which Rudies call fenugreek, as alfo tares for fodder, are now

fown,

47 ^ L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

fown, and not till now. This alfo fliall be the principal time for
fovving of lupines, which, fome people think, muft be forthwith car¬
ried direftly from the threfhing- field into the land. At this time
millet and panic are cut down, when the kidney-bean is fown for
food : for, in order to gather feed of it, it is better to put it under¬
ground the latter end of October, about the firft of November. Where¬
fore, feeing he ought to tranfad' and execute all thefe things in the
fields, he may delegate the care of thole things, which muft be done
within the Manor-houfe, to his wife the Houfekeeper ; yet fo, that
he himfelf may examine and confider whether they are rightly done,
or not.

The fir ft and fecond of October fometimes forebodes a ftorm. The
iv of October, Auriga (the Waggoner) fets in the morning : Virgo
leaves off letting j fometimes it is the fign of a ftorm. The v of
October Corona (the Crown) begins to rife : it forebodes a ftorm. The
vi of October Hcedi (the Kids) rife in the evening ; the middle of Aries
fets : a north-eaft wind. The viii of October , the bright Star of Co¬
rona (the Crown) riles. The x of October , the cPleiades rife in the
evening: a weft wind, and fometimes a fouth-weft wind, with rain.
The xiii and xiv of October , the whole Conftellation Corona rifes in
the morning : a winterly fouth wind, and fometimes rain. During
thefe days they ufually gather their grapes, and make their vintage, in
cold countries, and do the other things which are above-written : and
in the fame regions they fow their early-ripe corns, and efpecially
red-bearded hujked wheat. Alfo, in places not expofed to the Sun, it
is now the right time to fow the beft common wheat.

And, fince we have made mention of the feed-time, it will not be
unfeafonable, that we give an account, how much feed of every fort
a jugerum of land may receive. A jugerum of land receives four or
five modii of common wheat, nine or ten modii of red-bearded hulked
wheat, five or fix modii of barley, four or five fextarii of millet or
panic, eight or ten modii of lupines, four modii of kidney-beans,
three or four modii of peafe, fix modii of beans, one modius , or a
little more, of lentils, nine or ten modii of linfeed, three or four
modii of chicklings, two or three modii of chich-peafe, four or five
fextarii of fefame-feed, feven or eight modii of vetches for fodder, and
five or fix modii of vetches for feed, four or five modii of better vetches,
feven or eight modii of barley mifcellany, fix modii of fenugreek-feed ;
in beds ten feet long, and five feet broad, you muft fow a cyathus of
medic, or St. Fo'm-J'eed each : fix grains of hempfeed are fet in a fquare
foot of ground.

On

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 479

On the xv of October , and the two following days, there is fome-
times a dorm ; fometimes there falls a dew. The xx of OBober the
Sun pafi.es into Scorpio (16). The xx and xxi of OBober , at the rifing
of the Sun the Pleiades begin to fet : it is the iign of a dorm. The
xxii of OBober the tail of Taurus fets : a fouth wind, fometimes rain.
The xxv of OBober Centaurus ceafes to rife in the morning : it fore¬
bodes a dorm. The xxvi of OBober the forehead of Scorpio riles : it
is the fign of a dorm. The xxviii of OBober the Pleiades fet : it is
dormy weather, with cold and frods. The xxix of OBober ArBurus
let - in the evening : a windy day. The xxx and xxxi of OBober
Cajjiope (17) begins to fet: it fignifies a dorm.

During thefe days it is a right time to fet whatever plants ought
to be tranfplanted, and fet at a didance from one another, and fmall
trees of all forts. It is alfo a proper time to match elms with vines,
and to propagate the vines themfelves by layers, in places where they
are fupported by trees, and in vineyards. It is the time to weed and
dig nurl'eries, as alfo to ablaqueate trees, and vineyards alfo, and to
prune the dune ; as alfo to prune fuch vines as are fupported by trees.
Nurferies which have not been pampinated in their due time, and
fmall fig-trees, which grow in nurferies, ought to be pruned, and re¬
duced to fingle dems ; which neverthelefs, while they are young and
tender, are better pampinated while they are putting forth their buds.
But, as all things in Hufbandry mud be done fpeedily, and with
refolution, fo elpecially fowing of feed, and planting. It is an antient
proverb among Hufbandmen, That early fowing and planting ufe often
to deceive us , but that that which is late never deceives us , as to its
being certainly bad. Therefore we diredt, upon the whole, that, ac¬
cording as every place fhall be naturally cold, let that be fird fown
or planted : and in proportion as every place fhall be warm, let it
be lad.

(16) Scorpio , the Scorpion, is the eighth Sign of the Zodiac, and is commonly marked
thus tli. By the antients the Scorpion was drawn larger than at prefenr, fo that the
daws of it took up that pare of the heavens which is now adigned to Libra : it is placed
under the feet of Serpentarius, and feems to touch the Tropic of Capricorn with the point
of its tail, and is not far from the animal which the Centaur is reprefented as holding in
his hand. This Conftellation confifts of 19 Stars.

(17) Cafjiope , or Caffiepea , as the Mythologifts tell us, was wife of Cepbeus a King of
the Ethiopians : fhe by her pride, in preferring her own and her daughter Andromeda's
beauty to that of the Nereides, was the caufe of her daughter’s being expofed ro be de¬
voured by a whale, but was refeued by Perfcus. She alio, as her husband and daughter,
gives name to a northern Conftellation, and is reprefented as fitting in a chair next to
Cepbeus , with her feet placed in the Arctic circle, and her body reaching to ihe 1'ropic
of Cancer, which fhe touches with her head and her right-hand, and the Circulus Lac -
teus divides her almoft in the middle.

Tare»

48o L. ]. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

Tares and beans are faid to dung land : unlefs you turn up lupines
in the bloftbm, you will not thereby contribute any thing towards
dunging the land : for there is nothing whatfoever that is more com¬
monly either Town or gathered in, when the Labourers have nothing
to do j for, in the very beginning of the feed-time, it may be put
under-ground before any other feed, and it may be taken off the
ground very late in the year, after all the fruits are gathered in. After
you have fown your feed, you muff harrow in what you have fown.
Three Labourers will with eafe, in three days, harrow two jugera ,
and ablaqueate the trees that {ball be upon the ground : although the
antients would have every Labourer farcle and harrow a jugerutn a
day each ; which, whether it can be done rightly or not, I dare not
affirm.

At the fame time it is proper to cleanfe the ditches and rivulets,
and make gutters for drains, and water-furrows : at the fame times it
will be proper that we give the oxen afh-leaves, if we have them ; if
not, wild alb-leaves ; if we have not thefe neither, evergreen-oak-
leaves. It will not be amifs alfo, to give to each yoke of oxen one
modius of mart ; neverthelefs you muff not give them more, left they
be fick with it ; nor for lefs time than thirty days : for if you give
it them for fewer days (as Hyginus fays) the oxen become fcabby in
the Spring ; but the maff muff be mixed with chaff, and fo laid be¬
fore the oxen. Alfo, if any man has a mind to make a wildernefs,
where all forts of trees grow together wild without order, then is
the proper time to plant them with maff, and other feeds or plants.
Then alfo the olive-tree muff be ftript of its berries, of which you
have a mind to make green oil, the beft of which is made of the
olive-berry which is fpeckled, when it begins to grow black : for
bitter oil ought not to be made but of the white olive-berry.

The firft of November, and the day after, the head of Taurus fets :
it is a fign of rain. The iii of November Fidicula (the biggeft Star in
the Harp) rifes in the morning: it is cold ftormy weather, and rains.
The vi of November this fame whole Conftellation rifes: a fouth or
weft wind : it is cold ftormy weather. The vii of November the
bright Star of Scorpio rifes : it is the fign of a ftorm : it is cold Winter-
weather, or a north-eaft wind ; fometimes there is a dew. The viii
of November the Pleiades fet in the morning: it forebodes a ftorm : it
is cold Winter-weather. The ix of November the Winter begins : a
fouth or eaft wind ; fometimes there falls a dew. Jn thefe days, till
the xiiith, you may yet do tolerably well fuch things as you could
not do the preceding month : but you muff: oblerve this particularly,

that

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 48j

that the day before it is full Moon, if not then, yet without fail upon
the very day of the full Moon, you fow, in one day, all the beans
you delign to fow : but afterwards you may cover them with earth, to
defend them from the fowls and the cattle j and, if the courfe of
the Moon .{hall fo fall out, take care to have them harrowed, in the
fatteft and new ground, before the xiii of November ; but, if you
have not fuch kind of ground, let it be in ground exceeding well
dunged. It will be fufficient to provide eighteen loads of dung for
each jugerum ; but a load of dung contains eighty modii: from which
you may infer, that you muft fcatter five modii of dung upon ten feet
fquarej which computation teaches us, that mccccxl modii are fuf-
ficient for the whole jugerum. Then it is alfo proper to ablaqueate
olive-trees, and if they bear but little fruit, or if, upon their tops, their
twigs and leaves are fhrivelled and withered, to fcatter four modii of
goats-dung round the great trees, and to obferve a proportion in the
reft, according to their bignefs : at the fame time, in fuch vineyards
as are ablaqueated, to pour about one Jextarius of pigeon’s dung, or
a congius of human urine, or four fextarii of other dung about each
vine. Two Labourers will, in one day, ablaqueate a jugerum of vine¬
yards, where the vines are placed at the diftance of fix feet.

The xiii of November an uncertain day j neverthelefs it is ofteneft
calm and mild. The xv of November a north wind, fometimes a
fouth wind with rain. The xvi of November Fidis (the Harp) riles
in the morning : a fouth wind, fometimes a great north-eall wind.
The xvii of November a fouth-eaft wind, fometimes a fouth wind with
rain. The xviii of November the Sun palfes into Sagittarius. The
Hyades rife in the morning : it forebodes a tempeft. The xx of No¬
vember the horns of Taurus fet in the evening : a cold north-eaft wind
and rain. The xxi of November one of the Hyades fets in the morn¬
ing : it is ftormy Winter-weather. The xxii of November Lepus (the
Hare) (iS) fets in the morning: it forebodes a ftorm. The xxv of
November Canicula (the Dog-ftar)„ fets at the rifing of the Sun : it is
cold Winter-weather. The xxx of November all the Hyades fet : a
weft or fouth wind, fometimes rain.

In thefe days you muft finith fuch works as were omitted the pre¬
ceding days ; and if we do not fow very much, it will be belt to
have finilhed our lowing before the firft of December. But all'o, when

(t8) Lepus , the Mare, a fmall fouth .-rn Conflellation, confifting, as fome fay, of fix',
and as others, of 1 t, Stars. 1c is place 1 under the feet of Orion , and has Sirius behind,
as if he were always in purfuit of it j the Tropic of Capricorn divides the lower part of
its body : it rifeth with Leo , and -fets when Sagittarius rifeth.

the

482 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XI.

the nights are long, fome part of the night muft be added to the
day-time : for there are many things which are very well done by
candle-light. For, if either we poflefs vineyards, the flakes and poles,
or props round and fcjuare, may be hewed fmooth, and fhaipened $
or if the country be fertile of fennel-giant or bark, hives ought to be
made for bees j or if it be fruitful in palm-trees, or Spa?iijh bioom,
bafkets, frails, and panniers, ought to be made j or if it abounds in
young fprigs, then hampers and oiler bafkets. But not to mention
all other things at prefent, there is no region which does not afford
fomething which may be done by candle-light : for it is the character
of a flothful Hufbandman, to delay beginning his work till it be day¬
light, when the days are fhort, efpecially in thole regions vvheie the
fhorteft days are of nine hours, and the nights of fifteen. Willows
alfo, which have been cut down the day before, may be cleaned by
candle-light, and prepared for bindings for the vines, which, if they
be naturally not very tough, mufl be cut down fifteen days before,
and, after they are cleaned, covered with dung, that they may be¬
come tough and pliant : but if they have been cut down a great
while ago, and are grown dry, they mufl be fleeped in a pond. You
mufl alio fharpen the iron-tools by candle-light, and make handles
for them, or fit to them fuch as are already made, of which thofe
of evergreen oak are the bell, then thofe of hornbeam, and after thefe
thofe made of afh.

The fir ft of December an uncertain day j neverthelefs it is oftener
calm and mild. The vi of December one half of Sagittarius (the
Archer) fets : it forebodes a florm. The vii of December Aquila (the
Eagle) (19) rifes in the morning: a fouth-weft wind, fometimes a
fouth wind j there falls a dew. The xi of December a north-weft or
north wind ; fometimes a fouth wind with rain. In thefe days, fuch
works as have been omitted the former month, muft be thioughly
done, viz. in temperate, or in hot places ; for in fuch places as
are cold they cannot now be rightly done. The xiii of December the
whole Conflellation of Scorpio rifes in the morning : it is cold
Winter-weather. The xvii of December the Sun pafles into Capri -

(19) Jtquila, the Eagle, a Conflellation in the northern Hemifphere, confifting, ac¬
cording to Tome writers, of 32 Stars ; but the antient Aftronomers make their number
much fmaller: with its right wing it is not much diftanr from the Equinoctial Circle, and
with its left wing it is reprefented as not far from the head of Serpentarius ; a circle,
which is fuppofed to pafs from Cancer to Capricorn , divides its bill lrom the reft of us
body : it fets when Leo riles, and rifeth with Capricorn.

6

corn :

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 483

corn (20) : it is the Winter-folflice, as Hipparchus will have it j there¬
fore it often is the fign of a florm. The xviii of December forebodes
a change of the winds. The xxiii of December Capra (the Goat) fets
in the morning: it is the fign of a florm. The xxiv of December is
the Winter-folflice (as the Chaldeans obferve). The xxvii of De¬
cember Delphinus (the Dolphin) begins to rife in the morning : it is
the fign of a florm. The xxix of December Aquila (the Eagle) fets
in the evening : it is cold Win ter- weather. The xxx of December
Canicula (the Dog-flar) fets in the evening : it is the fign of a florm.
The xxxi of December a florm of wind.

They who pradtife Hufbandry with more fcrupulous exasflnefs and
fuperftition than ordinary, deny that the earth ought to be moved, in
thefe days, with any iron-tool, except you trench it on account of a
vineyard. Therefore whatever may be done befides that kind of
work, is by them comprehended in fuch things as thofe ; viz. that
olive-berries may be gathered, and oil made; that a vine may be flaked,
and faflened to the flake as far as its head ; that frames may be placed
in vineyards, and the flocks of the vines faflened to them as high as
their heads: but it is not expedient, at this time, to bind the branches
of the vine to the frame, for very many of them would break, be-
caufe of their fliffnefs, occafioned by the cold. Alfo, in thefe days
cherry-trees and tuberes , apricock- and almond-trees, and fuch other
trees as bloffom firfl, may be commodioufly grafted. Some alfo fow
pulfe.

The firfl of January an uncertain day. The iii of January Cancer
(the Crab) fets : changeable weather. The iv of January is the middle
of Winter : much wind from the fouth ; fometimes rain. The v of
January Fidis (the Harp) rifes in the morning : variable weather.
The viii of January a fouth wind, fometimes a weft wind. The ix
of January a fouth wind, fometimes a fhower. The xii of January
the flate of the weather is uncertain. During thefe days alfo the
more fcrupulous and fuperflitious Hufbandmen abftain from all man¬
ner of working whatl'oever in the ground ; fo neverthelefs that, for
the fake of good luck, they begin every kind of work upon the very

(20) Capricornus , the ioth Sign of the Zodiac, marked commonly with this character vr.
When the Sun enters into this Sign, about the nth of December., he is come to his uc-
moft fouthern declination, and makes the fhorteft day to them who live in the northern
Hemifphere, which is called the Winter-folflice , he proceeding no further fouth, but re¬
turns again towards the Equinoctial. He is reprefenced as looking towards the welt, and
is divided by the middle by the Tropic of Capricorn , and is placed under the left-hand
of Aquarius. They reckon 21 Stars in this Conltellatiom

Qj! q 2

firfl

484 L. J, M, COLUMELLA Book XI.

firft day of Ja?iuary : but they defer the moving and labouring of the
earth till the enfuing xiiith day of the month.

But neither ought the Bailiff to be ignorant, of what is fufficient
to be given to one yoke of oxen every day throughout every month :
wherefore we fhall fubjoin an account of this care alfo. In the month
of 'January he fhall give them ftraw and chaff with fix fextarii of
fteeped bitter vetches, or ftraw and chaff with half a modius of bruifed
chichlings, or a fodder-bafket full of leaves of twenty modii , or as
much ftraw and chaff as they will eat, and twenty pound weight of
hay, or green leaves from off the evergreen oak or laurel in abundance;
or, which is better than all thefe, dry barley mifcellany. In the
month of February the fame. In March the fame ; or, if they are
going to do their work, fifty pound weight of hay. In April he fhall
give them common oak- and poplar-leaves from the firft to the thir¬
teenth, or chaff and ftraw, or forty pound\weight of hay. In May
he fhall give them fodder in abundance. From the firft of June
leaves in abundance. In July the fame. Augujl the fame ; or fifty
pound weight of ftraw or chaff out of the field. In September leaves
and boughs in abundance. In Odlober green boughs with leaves, and
fig-tree-leaves. In November , till the thirteenth day of the month,
green boughs with leaves, or fig-tree leaves, as many as one forage-
bafket will contain ; and from the thirteenth one modius of maft
mixed with ftraw or chaff, and one modius of fteeped lupines mixed
with ftraw or chaff, or ripe mifcellany. In the month of December
he fhall give them dry leaves, or ftraw and chaff, with half a modius
of bitter vetches fteeped in water, or lupines, as many as half a modius
of them fteeped may amount to ; or one modius of maft, as is above-
written, or inefcelin.

CHAP. III.

Of the Culture of Gardens , and of Gar den-herbs , in Profe .

FOrafmuch as we have given a particular account of the works in¬
cumbent upon the Bailiff to perform throughout the whole
year, each in its proper feafon ; being mindful of our promife, we
fhajl fubjoin the culture of gardens, of which he is equally obliged to
undertake the care, both that he may leffen the expences of his daily
maintenance ; and that, when his Mafter comes to him, he may, as

the

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 485

the Poet fays, fet before him the country's unbought viands (i). De¬
mocritus, in that book which he called Georgicon , is of opinion, that
they do not aft very prudently, who build drong fences round their
gardens, becaufe neither can a wall made of brick lad many years,
it being, for the mod: part, damaged by rains and dorms } nor does
the expence, beyond the dignity and worth of the thing, require
dones. But, if any perfon would inclofe a large extent of ground,
it is necedary, that he have a good edate : therefore I myfelf will drew
you a method, whereby, with no great pains, we fecure our garden
from the incurfion both of men and of cattle.

The mod antient authors preferred a quickfet hedge to a built wall,
becaufe it would not only require lefs expences, but lad a vad time
longer} therefore they have given us this following method of making
of hedges, by planting of thorns. The place which you defign to
inclofe with an hedge, mud, as foon as the earth fhall be moidened
with fhowers, after the autumnal Equinox, be furrounded with two
furrows didant, about the fpace of three feet the one from the other.
It is fufficient, that the meafure of their depth and breadth be two
feet: but we mud differ them to lie open without filling them up
throughout the whole Winter, having prepared the feeds to fow them
withal : and let them be thofe of the larged thorns, and efpecially of
bramble, and of white thorn, and of that which the Greeks call
xuyoaGctlov' we call it dog’s thorn : but the feeds of thefe thorns mud
be chofen as ripe as poffible } and you mud mix them with the meal
of bitter vetches, well ground, which, when fprinkled with water,
you mud daub upon old fhip-ropes, or any other forts of ropes what-
foever} then the fmall ropes, being dried, are laid up in a loft. After¬
wards, when the Winter-foldice is pad, having intermitted forty days,
about the time that the fwallow comes ; now, when the wed wind
begins to rife, after the thirteenth of February , if any water has dood
in the furrows during the Winter, you draw it out } and, having
loofencd the ground which was thrown out of the furrows in Au¬
tumn, you replace it again as far as the half of the depth of the
furrows : afterwards the aforefaid ropes are taken out of the loft, and
uncoiled} and, being dretched to their full length, are laid along both
the furrows, and covered with earth, but fo, that there not being
too much earth thrown upon them, the feeds of the thorns, which
dick in the twids of the ropes, may be able to fpring up. They
creep forth about the thirtieth day } and, after they are advanced fome-
what in their growth, they ought to be fo formed, that they may

(1/ Vtrg. Ceorg. iv. 133.-.

lean

4.86 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

lean towards that fpace which lies between the two farrows : but you
mud place between them an hedge or row of rods, which the thorns
of both furrows may climb up upon, and that it may be as a prop or
lupport whereupon they may lean and reft, till fuch time as they be
grown ftrong : it is manifeft, that this thorn-hedge cannot be deftroy-
ed, unlefs you dig it up by the very roots. Moreover, nobody doubts,
but even after it has differed by fire, it will grow up again the better:
and this, indeed, is the way of inclofing a garden, which the antients
approved mo ft.

But it will be proper, if the fituation of the land will allow it,
that you make choice of a place for it, hard by the manor-houfe ;•
cfpecially a place that is fat, and which may be watered with a rivulet
running into it ; or, if there be no flowing or running water, with a
fpring of well-water. But, that you may have an undoubted afiur-
ance, that your well will never fail, but flow all the year long, it muft
be digged when the Sun fhall poffefs the laft parts of Virgo , and not
before, that is, in the month of September , before the autumnal Equi¬
nox ; becaufe then the ftrength of fprings is moft certainly known,
and beft found out, when the earth, by the long drought of Summer,
is deprived of rain-water : but you muft order matters fo, that the
garden be not fituated near the threfhing-floor, left the winds, during
the threfhing-time, carry chaff or duft into it j for both thefe are
hurtful to all forts of pot-herbs. Then there are two feafons for
trenching and putting the ground into good order, becaufe there are
alfo two feafons for lowing of pot-herbs j for very many of them are
fown both in Autumn and in the Spring : neverthelefs it is better to
fow them in the Spring, in fuch places as are well watered, becaufe
both the clemency of the growing year does kindly receive and enter¬
tain the young plants and feeds when they come forth, and the thirlf
of Summer is quenched by the fountains and fprings of water. But,
where the nature of the place neither fuffers you to be ferved with
water brought in by hand, nor with that which flows in of its own
accord, there is, indeed, no other refource or fupply but the Winter-
rains. Neverthelefs, even in the drieft places, your work may be
preferved, if the ground be trenched deeper than ordinary : and it is
iufticient to dig each gradation of it three feet deep, that fo the ridge
of the earth, that is thrown out of the trench, may rife to four feet.
But where there is the conveniency of watering plentifully, it will be
fufheient, that lay-land be turned up with a fpade that is not too deep,
that is, with an iron-tool lefs than two feet: but we muft take care,
that the land, which muft be planted in the Spring, be paftinated or

trenched

Chap. III. 0/ HUSBANDR Y. 487

trenched in Autumn, about the firft of November ; then that which
we would inftitute in Autumn, we muft turn it up in the month of
May, that both the glebe may be loofened, and the roots of the weeds
killed, either by the Winter-colds, or the Summer-fun ; and we ought
to dung it not long before : and, when the time of fowing or plant¬
ing (hall draw near, the place muft be cleared from herbs and weeds,
and dunged five days before, and fo carefully digged a fecond time,
that the earth may be mixed with the dung. But aftes dung is the
beft for this ufe, becaufe it breeds feweft w'eeds : the next is either
that of the herds, or of fheep, if it be macerated one year ; for what
men make, altho’ it is reckoned moft excellent, neverthelefs it is not
neceflary to apply it, except to bare gravel, or to the loofeft fand
which is without any ftrength, where, doubtlefs, a greater ftrength
of nourifhment is required. Wherefore we muft fuffer that ground,
which we have deftinated to low or plant in the Spring, to lie digged
after the Autumn, in order to be pinched with the Mid-winter-colds,
and hoar-frofts : for contrariwife, as the heat of Summer, fo the vio¬
lence of the cold, purges and refines the earth ; and, by having fermented
it, loofens it. Wherefore, when the Winter-folftice is paft, then, at
laft, d ng muft be thrown upon it ; and, about the xiiith of January ,
the ground, being digged over again, is divided into beds or quarters ;
which, neverthelefs, muft be fo contrived and formed, that the hands
of the Weeders may eafily reach to the middle of their breadth, left
they, who fearch after the weeds, be forced to trample upon the
plants; but rather let them go in by-paths, and let them weed the
half of the beds by turns. What we have faid is abundantly enough,
with relpedt to fuch things as muft be done before the fowing-
time.

Now let us direcft what muft either be cultivated or fown in every
feafon : and firft, we muft fpeak of thofe kinds which can be fown
in two feafons, that is, in Autumn and in Spring : and thefe are the
feeds of cabbage and lettuce, of the artichoke, rocket, garden-crefles,
coriander, chervil, dill, the parfnep, fkirwort, and of poppy ; for
thele are fown either about the firft of September , or rather in Fe¬
bruary, before the firft of March : but in dry or warm places, fuch
as thofe of the fea-coafts of Calabria and Apulia , they can be com¬
mitted to the earth about the thirteenth of January. Moreover, fuch
things as ought to be planted only in Autumn (provided neverthelefs
we inhabit a land that either lies upon the fea-coaft, or is expofed to
the Sun) are commonly thofe, garlickj the little heads of onions,
African garlick, muftard.

But

488 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XI.

But now alfo let us diged, by months, at -what time it may be
proper, for the mod part, that every thing be committed to the
earth : therefore prefently after the fird of January, it will be proper
to plant dittander or pepperwort. But in the month of February
rue and afparagus, either in the plant, or in the feed; and fometimes
the feed of the onion, and of the leek, may be put into the ground :
alfo you fhall put under-ground the feeds of the Syrian root, and of
the turnep and the navew, if you have a mind to have fruit of them
both in the Spring, and in Summer ; for common garlick, and Afri¬
ca, n garlick, are the laft things that are fet at this time. But about
the fird of March , in funny places, you may tranfplant the leek (if
it is now grown big) ; Hercules s all-heal alfo in the latter part of the
month of March. Then, about the firft of April , you may tranf¬
plant equally the leek, and elecampane, and the lateward plant of
rue : alfo the cucumber, the gourd, and the caper, mud; be fown,
that they may grow up the fooner; for beet-feed is then, at length,
beft fown, when the pomegranate-tree bloffoms : but the head of
a leek is as yet tolerably well tranfplanted about the fifteenth of
May. After this nothing ought to be put under-ground, when the
Summer is coming on, except parfiey-feed, provided you fail not to
water it well ; for fo it comes up very well during the Summer.
Moreover, in Auguft is the third lowing time, about the time when
they celebrate the fead of Vulcan ; and this is the bed; feafon for fow-
ing the Syrian root, and the turnep, the navew alfo, and lkirwort,
and Alexanders : and thefe are the times for fowing.

Now I fhall fpeak of each of thefe an particular, which require
any care ; and, as to fuch of them as I fhall pafs over, it mull be
underflood, that they require no other pains and labour but that of
the Weeder, of which we mull fay this once for all, that at all times
particular care mud be taken to exterminate the weeds. That kind
of garlick, which fome call Carthaginian garlick, but the Greeks call
dqpoo-KcpoS'ov , is of a much greater growth than common garlick : and
about the firft of October, before it is planted, it mud be divided from
one head into feveral ; for, like common garlick, it has feveral cloves
dicking together ; and, when thefe are divided, they ought to be planted
in ridges, that, being placed in raifed beds, they may be the iefs in-
feded by the Winter- rains. But a ridge in a garden is like to that
which Hulbandmen make where they fow their champagne lands, that
they may avoid and carry ofF the moidure. But in gardens this mud
be made leffer; and upon the uppermod part of it, that is, upon the
back or rifing part of it, mud the cloves of Carthaginian garlick, or

of

Chap. III. O/HUSBANDRY, 489

of common garlick (for this is planted after the fame manner) be re¬
gularly fet at the diftance of an hand-breadth, the one from the other:
let the furrows of the ridges be half a foot diflant from each other.
Then, when the cloves have fent forth three blades or leaves, let them
be farcied ; for the oftener this is done, the greater growth the plants
attain to. Then before they make their ftalk, it will be proper to
twill the uppermolt green part of it, and to lay it flat upon the ground,
that their heads may grow the larger. But in regions liable to hoar-
frolls, neither of thefe ought to be planted during the Autumn : for
when the day is at the fliorteffc they fpoil and rot with the cold wea¬
ther, which commonly grows mild in the month of January : and
therefore in cold places, the bell time for planting either common or
Carthaginian garlick, is about the thirteenth of the forefaid month.
But at what time foever we (hall either plant them, or when they are
ripe, lay them up in a loft, we mull obferve, that the Moon be under
the earth, with refpedt to thofe places where they are either put into
the earth, or taken out of it : for, being planted after this manner, and
alfo laid up fo, they are reckoned not to be of fo very pungent a tafle,
nor to give fuch a ftrong fmell to the breath of thofe that eat them.
Neverthelefs, many plant them before the Aril of January , in the
month of December, in the middle of the day, if the warmnefs of
the weather, and the fituation of the ground, permit it.

Cabbage ought to be tranfplanted when it con fills of fix leaves, fo
that it be fet after its root has been firft daubed over with thin dung,
and wrapped up in three fmall fillets of fea-weed ; for this thing has
this effect, that in the boiling it becomes more quickly foft and tender,
and preferves its green colour without nitre. But in cold and rainy
countries, the bell time for fetting it is after the thirteenth of April ;
the plants of which being thrull into the ground, when they have
once taken hold, the oftener they are farcied and dunged, as far as
the Kitchen-gardener’s bufinefs and interell will allow, the better they
thrive, and the llronger they grow, and of a fuller growth will they
make both their llalks and their fprouts. Some people fet the fame
immediately after the firft of March , in fuch places as are more ex-
pofed to the Sun ; but the greater part of it lhoots out into fprouts,
and a top ; and, when it is once cut, it does not afterwards make a
large Winter-cabbage. But you may tranfplant even the greateft cab-
bage-ftalks twice; and if you do this, they fay that they yield more
feed, and of a greater growth.

Lettuce ought to be tranfplanted, when it has as many leaves as the
cabbage. Indeed, in funny and maritime places, the bell time to plant

R r r it

490 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI

it is in Autumn ; but in inland and cold places it is otherwife : in
Winter it is not fo convenient to tranfplant it. But the root of this
alfo ought to be daubed with dung; and it requires a greater plenty of
water, and fo it becomes of a tenderer leaf. But there are feveral
kinds of lettuce, which muftbe Town alfo each in its own feafon ; and
of them that which is of a dark, and, as it were, of a purple, or of
a green colour alfo, and of a curled leaf, as the Cecilian , is rightly
fown in the month of 'January . But the Cappadocian , which grows
up with a pale-green fmooth and thick leaf, is fown in the month of
February ; then that which is white, with a leaf very much curled,
as in the province of Bcetica , and in the borders of the municipal city
of Cadiz , is rightly planted in the month of March . There is alfo
that of the Cyprian kind, of a whitifh-red, with a light and very
tender leaf, which is very conveniently planted till the thirteenth of
April: neverthelefs, in a climate where the Sun moftly fhines, lettuce
may be fown almoft the whole year in fuch places where there is '
plenty of water. And, that it may make its ftalk the more (lowly,
when it has had fome growth, let it receive a fmall brick or tile in
the middle of it : being checked, as it were, with this weight, it dif-
fufes itfelf into breadth.

The fame method is to be obferved with refpedt to endive alfo, ex¬
cepting that it bears the Winter better; therefore it may be fown in
the beginning of Autumn, even in cold countries. We (hall plant the
(lip or fucker of the artichoke, to better advantage, about the autumnal
Equinox, and low the feed of it more commodioufly about the firft
of March •, and thru ft the plant of it into the earth about the firft of
November ; and we muft dung it with plenty of allies; for this kind
of dung feems the fitted for this pot-herb. Muftard and coriander,
as alfo rocket and bafft, abide in their feats, as they are fown, with¬
out being removed ; nor do they require any other culture, but that
they be dunged and weeded : but they may be fown not only in
Autumn, but in the Spring alfo. Alfo the plants of muftard, tranf-
planted in the beginning of Winter, bring a more buftiy top in the
Spring. All-heal is fown, in both feafons, exceeding thin, upon light
and well-manured ground, that it may arrive at a greater growth :
neverthelefs it is better to fow it in the Spring. If you would make
the leek fedtive, or fit for being often cut, the antients diredted it to
be left very thick-fown, and fo, when it is grown up, to be cut. But
experience has taught us, that it thrives much better if you tranfplant
it, and fet it in the fame manner as you do the headed leek, at (mall
diftances, that is, within four inches the one from the other ; and,

when

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 491

when it is grown up, cut it. But, as to that which you have a mind
to form into a great head, you muft take care, before you tranfplant
and fet it again, that you cut away all its fmall roots, and clip off
the uppermoft parts of its fibres or leaves : then little tiles or fhells are
put under-ground, and placed, as it were feats, under each of the
plants, that fo their heads may become of a larger growth. But the
culture of the headed leek is continual farcling and dunging : neither
is that of the festive leek different, except that it ought to be as often
watered, dunged, and farcied, as it is cut. In warm places its feed
is fown in January, and in cold in February ; and, that its growth
may become the greater, feveral grains of it are tied up in a thin linen
clout, and fo put under-ground. But, after it is fprung up in thofe
places to which water cannot be conveyed, it ought to be tranfplanted
about the time of the autumnal Equinox ; but in fuch places as you
.can give moifture to, it is rightly tranfplanted in the month of
May.

You may raife parfley alfo both by plants and feed : it chiefly de¬
lights in water, and therefore it is mofl commodioufly placed hard by
a fountain : and, if any one has a mind to raife it with a broad leaf,
let him tie up as much feed of it as his three fingers can hold, in a
thin linen rag, and fo put it into little beds of earth in a regular man¬
lier : or, if he would rather have it grow up with curled leaves, let
him put its feed into a mortar, and beat it with a willow peftle, and
clear it from its hufks ; and then, when it is bound up in linnen rags,
in the fame manner put it under-ground. It may alfo, without all
this pains, be made curled, whatever way it is fown, if, when it is
fprung up, he check its growth by rolling it over with a roller. The
befl time for fowing it is, after the fifteenth of May till the Solffice j
for it requires warmth.

Alfo, commonly in thefe days bafil is fown, the feed of which,
when it is put into the ground, is carefully thruft into it with a beetle
or roller ; for if you leave the earth fufpended and loofe, it corrupts
for the mofl part. The parfnep, fkirret-root, and elacampane, thrive
exceedingly in a place that is trenched deep and dunged ; but they
. muft be fet exceeding thin, that they may grow the bigger. But it
is proper, that elacampane be planted at the diflance of three feet, be-
caufle it makes vaft bufhy ftalks, and creeps with its roots like the eye
of a reed : nor do all thefe require any other culture, but that the
weeds be taken away by frequent farcling. But the mofl proper time
for putting them into the ground will be in the former part of the

R r r 2 month

492 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookXI.

month of September , or in the latter part of Augujl. Alifander (2),
which fome of the Greeks call i^^oasAivov^ fome c-fjLUgviov, ought to
be fown in feed, in a place that is well trenched, especially hard by
a wall ; becaufe it both rejoices in a (hade, and thrives and grows ftrong
in any place, how indifferent foever : and when you have once fown
it, if you do not pull it all up by the roots, but leave, and fet apart,
ftalks of it here-and- there for feed, it will laft an age, and requires
but the very fmall culture of farcling. It is fown from the feaft of
Vulcan till the lirff of September , and even in the month of January
alfo.

Mint requires a fweet oufy foil, for which reafon it is rightly placed
near a fountain in the month of March', and, if the plants of it fhould
happen to fail, you may gather wild mint from off fallow lands, and
plant it with its tops inverted; which thing takes away its wildnefs,
and makes it tame. The rue which you have fown in feed in Au¬
tumn, you muft tranfplant in the month of March into a funny place,
and heap afhes upon it, and weed it till it grow ftrong, left it be killed
with weeds : but it ought to be weeded with the hand well covered ; for,
unlefs you cover it, pernicious ulcers will breed: if neverthelefs, through
ignorance, you fhall weed it with your naked hand, and an itching
and fwelling follow upon it, anoint it throughly with oil from time
to time. Its Ihrub or ffalk continues for many years without fuffer-
ing any hurt, except a woman in her menfes touch it, and it wither
and dry up becaufe of that.

Thyme, and garden favory, which comes from beyond fea, and
mother of thyme, as I have already related in a former book, are
more carefully planted by fuch as take care of bee-hives, than by
Kitchen-gardeners. But we do not think it amifs to have them alfo
in gardens, by reafon of their ufefulnefs for feafoning (for they are
exceeding proper for fome forts of efculents) : they require a place
neither fat, nor dunged, but expofed to the Sun ; for the moft part
they grow up of their own accord in the leaned: ground : thefe are
railed both from the feed, and from plants, about the time of the vernal
Equinox: neverthelefs it is better to fet young plants of thyme; and, after
they have been fet in well-manured ground, left they ftrike root Howdy,

(2) Olus atrum , fometimcs by our author called olus pullum, commonly tranflated ali-
j, a', icier , which, as has been laid, feme chink to be a corruption of the Latin: it is fo
called probabiy from the blacknefs of its root and feed. The Greeks called ir Hippofe~
li-nutn , e. horfe loveage or parfley, either becaufe of the bignefs of its growth, or be-
caufe it was given to horfes as a remedy: they alfo called ic Jmyrmxm-, becaufe the juice
that flows from it refembles myrrh in tafte or fmell. It was called by fome 1 'wjcuov
of which hippofelinov is only an abbreviation.

you

Chap. III. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 493

you muft bruife a (talk or brufh of dry thyme in a mortar ; and,
after it is bruited, you muft infufe it in water the day before you de-
fign to ufe it; and, after the water has extracted the juice of it, you
muft pour it upon the ftalks which you have fet, until it has throughly
ftrengthened them, and make them take faft hold : but Italian favory
is more lively, than that you need to beftow much trouble and pains
in taking care of it. When you (hall have planted your dittander or
pepperwort before the firft of March , you may cut it down as you
do fedtive leeks or chives: neverthelefs it muft be done feldomer ; for
it muft not be cut after the firft of November , becaufe, if it be hurt
in cold weather, it utterly decays and dies: neverthelefs it will hold
out for two years, if it be carefully farcied and dunged : in many
places alfo it prolongs its life even for ten years. The Beet is put
under-ground in feed when the pomegranate-tree bloftoms ; and, if
the garden be well watered, it is tran (planted in Summer, as the
cabbage or colewort, as foon as it confifts of five leaves : but, if the
garden be naturally dry, it ought to be fet in Autumn, fome time after
the rains are come on.

About the firft of Odlober , chervil , as alfo the pot-herb orrach ,
which the Greeks call «t patpct^tv (3), muft be put under-ground, in a
place that is not very cold: for, if the country has very hard winters,
the plants muft be tranfplanted from the place where they were feated
clofe together, and feparated to a greater diftance the one from the
other. The fame method is obferved in the fowing of poppy and
dill, as of chervil and orrach. The feeds of garden afparagus, and
of that which the peafants call corrnda (wild afparagus) are almoft two
years in preparing : when, in a fat and well-dunged foil, you ftiall
have put them under-ground, fo as to place into every little trench
you have made for them, as much feed as your three fingers can hold ;
commonly after the fortieth day they are twifted and interwoven with
one another, and make, as it were, an unity, or one united mafs ;
which fmall roots, thus twifted and connected, the Kitchen-gardeners
call Jpunges : and it is proper, that, after twenty-four months, they
be tranlplanted into a funny place, fufficiently moift, and well dunged :
but the trenches or furrows are made at the diftance of one foot the
one from the other, and not more than three-fourths of a foot in

(3) , atiiylex, orach. Pliny fays, that Tythagora; blamed this pot-herb as the

caufe of dropnes, jaundice, palenefs, drc. and Tome pretend, thac irs Latin name inti¬
mates, that it makes iuch as eat it pale and difeoioured : bur, whatever there is in this,
its Greek name, which fome pretend to be made up of two words, d(l?jus ctvz&v, from
it-: quick growth, feems more expreffive of its nature; for it comes forth, as Pliny fays,
the 8 th day, and is fit for eating the 15th.

6 depth,

494 L. J. M. COL U M ELLA Book XI.

depth, into which the little . fpunges are fo thruft down, that, after
the earth is put upon them, they may eafily fpring up. But, in dry '
places, the feeds or plants muft be placed in the lower parts of the
furrows, that they may abide, as it were, in little chanels or troughs:
but in fuch as are oufy, on the contrary, they muft be placed in the
uppermoft back of the ridge, left they b hurt with too much moifture.
Then the firft year, after they have been thus planted, the afparagus,
which they fhall tend forth, muft be broken off lhort ; for if you
fhould pull it up from the bottom, the little roots being as yet tender
and weak, the whole little fpunge will follow : the reft of the years
it muft not be cropped, but plucked up by the root ; for, unlefs you
do lo, the ftalks that are broken off lhort, hurt, and give pain to the
eyes of the fpunges, and, as it were, blind them, and do not buffer
them to put forth the afparagus. Moreover, every ftalk, which
fprings up laft in Autumn, muft not be intirely taken away, but fome
of them muft be left, and fet apart for feed. Then, after it has
made its prickle, the feeds themfelves being gathered, the haulm muft
be throughly burnt in its own place, juft as it is,; and then all the
furrows muft be farcied, and raked at the fame time, and the weeds
taken out of them ; and prefently after, either dung or allies thrown
into them, that the juice of them, trickling down with the rains the
whole Winter, may come to the root. Then in the Spring, before
it Hi all begin to fprout, let the earth be ftirred with a forked iron-
tool, that the ftyle may the more eafily fpring up, and ftiew itfelf, and
become thicker and fuller when the ground is loofened.

The radifti root is rightly fown twice in the year; in the month of
February , when we expedt fruit of it in the Spring; and in the month
of Auguji , about the feaft of Vulcan , when we expedt it earlier : but
this time of fowing it is, without doubt, efteemed the beft. The
care to be taken of it is, that it be fown in ground that is well dunged
and manured ; and, after it is arrived to fome growth, that it be
earthed from time to time ; for if it emerge, or flioot up above the
earth, it will become hard and fpungy.

The cucumber and gourd, when there is plenty of water, require
lefs care ; for they are very much delighted and helped with moifture.
But, if they muft be fown in a dry place, where there is not the
conveniency of watering them, in the month of February furrows,
of the depth of one foot and an half, muft be made. Then after
the fifteenth of March , almoft the third part of the depth of the
furrow muft be covered with ftraw put into it; then well-dunged
earth muft be thrown into it, till it come up to the middle of the

furrow ;

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY.’ 495

furrow ; and, after the feeds are put into them, they muft be con¬
tinually watered, till they fpring up ; and, after they have begun to
thrive and grow ftrong, their growth muft be promoted and forwarded
by adding earth to them, till the furrow be filled up, and made even :
the feeds, being thus cultivated, will thrive well enough, and be in a
good date the whole Summer, without watering, and will yield fruit
of a more delicious tafte than fuch as are watered. Bur, in watery
places, the feed muft be put into the ground as foon as poffible ;
neverthelefs not before the firft of March , that it may be tranfplanted'
when the Equinox is paft : and take this feed out of the middle of
the gourd, and place it in the ground with its top inverted, that it
may be of a vafter growth ; for when they are thioughly dried, they
may be ufed as veffels, as the Alexandrian gourds are. But, if you
prepare them for eatable-duff, you muft take the feed out of the
neck of the gourd, and fet it with its top upright ; by which means-
its fruit will grow up both longer and lmaller, which certainly brings
a greater price than the others. But care muft be taken, that as fel-
dom as can be, a woman be admitted into that place wherein either
the cucumber, or the gourd, is planted : for, commonly, green things
languifh, and are checked in their growth by her handling of them.
But if (lie be alfo in her menfes, fhe will kill the young offspring alfo
with her look. A cucumber becomes tender, and exceeding agree¬
able to the tafte, if you foak its feed in milk before you fow it : fome
alfo, that it may be the fweeter, do it in mead. Butanyperfon that is
defirous to have the fruit of the cucumber earlier ripe than ordinary,
let him (hut up well-dunged earth in a cafe, or ofier-bafket, and fow
the feed therein, and give it moderate moifture. Then, when the
feeds are fprung up, let him place them in the open air, in mild and
warm funny days, hard by the houfe, that they may be protedfed
from every blaft of wind. But in cold and ftormy weather, let him
bring them back again into the houfe; and let him conftantly do this
till the vernal Equinox be paft : afterwards let him put down the
whole bafket into the ground ; for thus he fhall have early fruit.
Alfo, if it be worth the while, little wheels may be put under larger
vafes, that they may be brought out with lefs labour, and harboured
again in the houfe : but, notwithftanding, they onght to he covered
with gluffes (4), that in cold weather alfo, when the days are clear,

(4) specularibus. Though this word is tranflated gla/fey, as being 2grecable to the mo¬
dern practice in this thing; yet by fpccularis , I fuppolc, the author means a certain tranf-
parent (tone, which thiy clove and cut into as {mail pieces as they pleated, and ufed
them for rheir windows to keep out the winds and let in the light, <&c. as they did
aferwards with glals. This ftene, it feems, was firft found in Spain, and afterwards in
feveral other countries, as Pliny fays; and, as Seneca lays, was not in ufe before his days.

they

496 L,]. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

they may be fafely brought forth to the Sun. By this method Tiberius
Cafar was provided with cucumbers almoft the whole year (y). But
we read in Bolus Mendejius, an Egyptian author, that this is done
with much lefs trouble : he diredts us to keep in our gardens, in a
place expoied to the Sun, and well-dunged, brambles and fennel-giants
planted in rows one after another by turns : then, after the Equinox is
pad, to cut them a little below the ground ; and after having, with a
wooden bodkin, loofened the pith either of the fennel-giant or bramble,
to put dung into them, and fo put the feeds of the cucumber into
them, which by their growth may clofely unite with the brambles
and fennel-giants ; for thus they are not nourifhed by their own, but,
as it were, by their maternal root ; and the dock, thus ingrafted, will
alfo in cold weather yield the fruit of the cucumber. The fecond
feafon they obferve for fowing this feed, is commonly at the feafl of
Minerva , after the middle of March.

The caper-bujh , in very many provinces, grows of its own accord
in fallow lands ; but, in luch places where there is a fcarcity of it, if
it mud be fown, it will require a dry place; and that ought to be
furrounded with a fmall ditch before-hand, which may be fdled with
dones and lime, or Carthaginian clay, that it may be, as it were, a
certain intrenchment, that the dalks of the forefaid feed may not be
able to break through it, which commonly fpread themfelves almod
over the whole land, unlefs they be hindered by fome fence or mound;
which thing, neverthelefs, is not of itfelf fo great an inconveniency,
(for they may be rooted out from time to time) as that they contain
an hurtful poifon, and with their juice make the ground barren. It
is fatisfied with very little or no culture ; for it is a thing that grows
up and thrives even in untilled lands, without any pains of the Huf-
bandman. It is fown at the time of both the Equinoxes.

An onion-bed requires earth that is frequently manured, rather than
that which is turned up deeper than ordinary : therefore the ground
ought to be cut up from the firft of November , that it may rot with
the Winter colds and frofts ; and, after an intermifiion of forty days,
digged a fecond time; and then, after twenty-one days, digged a third
time, and prefently dunged ; and then, after it is equally and thoroughly
digged with fpades, divided into beds or quarters, after all the roots

(5) Pliny, in his ninth book, cap. 5. mentions the great liking that the Emperor Tibe¬
rius had to cucumbers: perhaps both Pliny and Columella take the word in its largeft
bonification, as hgnifying melons alfo; and then Tiberius's fondnefs for them may be better
accounted tor, this fruit being extremely delicious in many places of Italy, and the
Italians great eaters of it.

have

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 497

have been pulled up and dedroyed. Then, about the fird of February ,
it may be proper, that, on a clear bright day, the feeds be fcattered ;
with which fome feed of favory muft be intermixed, that we may
have that alfo ; for it is both agreeable to eat when it is green j and
when it is dry, it is not ufelels for feafoning broth, or any other
dainty diflies. An onion-bed ought to be farcied not lefs than four
times at lead:, or even oftener. If you have a mind to make
provifion of the feed of it, in the month of February fet the larged
heads of the Afcalonian kind (6), which is the bed, four or even five
inches didant from each other ; and when they begin to thrive well,
do not farcle them lefs than three times : then, after they have made
their (talk, preferve the diflfnefs of their dalks by placing low rails,
as it were, of frnall dakes among them ; for unlefs you place reeds
croflwife among them, very clofe upon each other, after the manner
of frames in a vineyard, the dalks of the onions will be thrown down
by the winds, and all the feed will be diaken out ; which, indeed,
mud not be gathered before it begins to grow ripe, and to have a
black colour. But you mud neither luffer it to grow throughly dry
and withered, nor to fill all to the ground j but the dalks mud be
pulled up intire, and dried in the Sun.

There are two feafons for fowing the turnep and the navew, and
they require the fame culture as the radifli : neverthelefs, the bed
time for fowing them is in the month of Augujl. A jugerum of land
requires four fextarii of their feed ; but fo, that, over and above this
meafiu re, it may receive a little more than an hemina of the feed of
the Syrian root. Let him who lhall fow thefe feeds in Summer have
a care, that the gnat or little fly, by reafon of the droughts, do not
dedroy the yet tender leaves, when they are creeping forth. That this
may be alfo prevented, the dud which is found upon an arched roof,
or the foot alfo which dicks to the roofs above the hearths, ought to
be gathered ; then the day before the fowing, to be mixed with the
feeds, and lprinkled with water, that they may imbibe the juice the
whole night • for the feeds being thus foaked, they may be fafely
fown the next day. Certain antient authors, as Democritus , diredt
us to medicate all feeds with the juice of the herb they call houjleek,
and to ufe the fame remedy againA the little vermin, which expe¬
rience has taught us to be true. But yet we more frequently make
ufe of the foot, and the dud before-mentioned: becaufe there is but

(6) Afcalnnii generis. Pliny, lib. xix. cap. 6 favs, that this forr of onion had its name
from AJcalonia, a town in Jude. i ; and Father Hardouiu thinks they arc what the French
call e fchalutcs^ it 1 1 1 retaining lomcthing of their former nunc.

S f f

a final!

498 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI.

a fmall quantity of this herb to be had ; and by thefe we preferve the
plants in fafety commodioufly enough. Hyginus thinks, that, after
the thrdning, the turnep-feeds ought to be 1'cattered upon the ground,,
while the ftraw and chaff are as yet lying in the threlhing-floor j be-
caufe their heads become the larger, when the hardnefs of the ground
that lies under them, does not luffer them to defcend deep into the
earth : we have often tried that without any fuccefs ; therefore we
think, that the turnep, the radifli, and the navew, are better fovvn
in well-manured ground. And the Hufbandmen, that are more reli¬
gious than ordinary, do as yet obferve the cuftom of the antients,
who, when they fow them, pray, ‘That they may grow both for them -
[elves , and for their neighbours . In cold places, where they are afraid,
left what they fow in Autumn may be chilled with the frofts in
Winter, they make low rails with reeds, and place rods acrofs upon
them, and throw ftraw upon the rods, and fo defend the feeds from
the hoar-frofts. But, in regions expo fed to the Sun, where, after the
rains, thofe noxious animals we call palmer-worms, but in the Greek
language are called y^dyurai (7), fall upon them, they ought either to
be gathered by hand, or early in the morning the ftalks of the pot¬
herbs fhould be fhaken ; for thus, if, while they are as yet ftiff with
the cold of the night, they fall down, they cannot afterwards creep
up to the higher part. Neverthelefs it is needlefs to do this, if, as I
faid before, the feeds be macerated, before they are fown, with the
juice of the herb houfeck ; for the palmer-worms do no manner of hurt
to them, when they are medicated after this manner. But Democritus ,.
in that book which, in Greek , is intituled -me p\ cLvtuto&wv (8) affirms,
that thefe felf-fame beafts are killed, if a woman, in her menfes, go
with her hair loofe, and bare-footed, thrice round each bed in the
garden j and that, after this, all the little worms will fall down, and
fo die.

(7) Kc a palmer-worm, has its name from its many joints, and bending itfelf in -
many different parts when it creeps.

(8) Tliei dvjnra.&cov, fome read it cLv'inra.Q&cov. If the firft be the true reading, then dv-

may fignify the fame as anttyh arm aeon , a remedy in general againft any diftem-
per : but, if the fecond be right, as probably it is, then dflnrdQ fignifies a repugnancy
between two things, becaufe of contrary qualities ; as between fire and water, &c. or
the virtue or power that a thing may have of refilling, or relieving from, and alfilling
againft, the hurtful quality of fome other thing. Democritus wrote asieX dvlnrdfteiuv kaI
of which there is only a fragment remaining, which is publifhed in Fabri-
cius's Bibl. Grtec. wherein there is nothing of this ridiculous ftory; only, that in a garden
carerpilie: s will die, if you boil thofe of another garden in water, and fprinkle the garden
therewith.

h

Thus

Chap. III. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 499

Thus far have I thought it proper to give directions concerning the
culture of gardens, and the offices of a Bailiff : and, though I have
already given it as my opinion, in the firfl part of this book, that he
ffiould be well inftruCted and learned in all manner of bufinefs relating
to Huffiandry ; neverthelefs, becaufe it moft commonly happens, that
our memory of the things we have learned fails us, and that it mull
be frequently renewed from notes, and abftrafts, and memorandums
of things, I have fubjoined the arguments or contents of all my books,
that whatever thing ffiould be fought for, and after what manner every
thing ffiould be done, might be eafily found out, whenever there ffiould
be occalion for it (9).

( 9) From this laft paragraph there Teems to be Tome reafon to think, that Columella
defigned to have finifhed here; but he changed his mind, and probably forgo- to change
this paragraph. There is alfo ground to think, that he compofed an index to his work;
probably like that of Pliny and Aulus Gellius : but it is now loft, or torn in pieces and
mangled by thofe who divided his books into chapters, to which they prefixed arguments
taken our of the index; and in many places not very judicioufly.

S f f 2

L. JU-

[ 500 ]

L. JUNIUS MODERALUS COLUMELLA

O F

HUSBANDRY.

The TWELFTH and Laft BOOK.

The Bailiff's Wife,

The PREFACE.

E NO P H O N the Athenian , in that book, Publius SUvtnus ,

which is intituled his Oeconomic (i), has declared, that the
matrimonial union is fo wifely ordered and devifed by Nature,
that not only the mod: agreeable, but alfo the. mod: profitable fociety
and partnerlhip in life, might be entered into j which, not long ago,
Cicero alfo faid : and led: mankind fhould, in procefs of time, utterly
perifh, for this reafon a Man and a Woman were joined together :
moreover that, from this fame fociety, there might be prepared for
mortals not only helps and fupports, but alfo defences for their old
age. Yea further, confidering that food, clotheing, and other things
neceffary for mankind, were not to be prepared for them, as for wild
beafls, in the open air, and in woods and foreds, but at home, under
a roof, it was necefiary, that one of the two fhould be abroad, and
in the open air, who, by labour and induftry, might procure and pro¬
vide the fame ; and the other within doors, who might lay them up

(i) O economics. This Greek word, though moftly ufed as an adjective, yet by Xeno¬
phon, and l'ome others, it is frequently ufed as a fubftantive, and lignifies one that has
skill, prudence, and dexterity in the management of domeftic affairs. Coluviclla has here
given us the fubflance of what Xenophon has faid upon this fubjedt, without confining
himfelf to his very words and, as he takes notice of Cicero’ s having tranflated this
books, it is probable he made ufe of his words : but this cannot be affirmed for certain,
lince wc have not that tranflation.

in

L. J. M. COLUMELLA, ®e. 501

in houfes, and watch over and keep them fafely j forafmuch as it
was neceffary for us, either to pradtife Hufbandry, or Navigation, or
carry on fome other kind of bufinefs, that we might acquire fome
worldly fub dance. But, when the things acquired were brought to¬
gether under our roof, it was all'o neceffary that there fhould be an¬
other, who might watch over and keep them, after they were brought
in, and do all luch other bufinefs as ought to be managed and done
at home : for both the corns, and the other things, which the earth
produces for our fuflenance, flood in need of an houfe to cover them ;
and it was neceffary, that the offspring of (beep, and the increafe and
produce of other forts of cattle, fhould be fafely kept in a clofe and
fecure place ; as alfo the other things that are ufeful and neceffary for
the luflenance, clotheing, accommodation, and conveniency of man¬
kind. Wherefore, fince the things we have mentioned did require
both pains and diligence, and that fuch things as it was neceffary
fhould be fafely kept, and taken care of at home, were not with
fmall care acquired abroad ; it was rightly ordered and provided, as I
faid, by Nature, that domeftic diligence fhould be the bufinefs and
talk of the Woman ; and that of the Man, all bufinefs tranfadled abroad
and without-doors. Therefore Nature has allottted to Man the luf-
fering of heat and cold, as alfo journeys, and the labours and fatigues
both of peace and war ; that is, all the laborious bufinefs of Hufban-
dry, and Military Service : moreover, to the Woman, becaule Nature
had made her inhabile for all thefe things, fhe committed the care of
domeftic affairs : and, becaule fine had afiigned diligence, and the
cuftody and charge of things, as the proper bufinefs of this fex ; there¬
fore fhe made it more timorous than that of the male: for fear con¬
tributes very much to the diligence that is requifite for the cuftody and
prefervation of any thing.

And becaufe it was necefiary, that they who feek their living with¬
out-doors, and in the open fields, fhould l'ometimes repel injuries ;
therefore fhe has made the Man more courageous and bolder than the
Woman. But becaufe, after they had acquired riches, they flood both
equally in need of memory and diligence, Ihe has notgivenalefler fhare
of thefe things to the Woman, than to the Man. Moreover,- becaufe
fimple Nature would not, that any one of them fhould comprehend all
things commodious for them, therefore fhe willed, that the one fhould
fland in need of the other ; becaufe what is wanting to the one, is,
for the molt part, in the poffefiion of the other. Thefe things did
Xenophon , and after him Cicero , who tranflated him into Latin , not
unprofitably difcourfe of. For both among the Greeks } and afterwards

among

502 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XIL

among the Romans, even down to the memory of our fathers, the
Matron took all the domeftic labour upon herfelf ; the Mafters of
families, when they laid afide all care of public affairs, and bufinefs
vvithout-doors, retiring into their own houfes, as into a place of refl :
for the higheft reverence and regard were mixed with concord and
diligence, and the beautifulleft Woman did bum with emulation to
excel in diligence, ftudying, by her care, to inlarge and make better
the affairs and circumflances of her Hufband. There was no feparate
or divided interefl feen in the houfe, nothing that either the Hufband
or the Wife would properly call their own ; but they both confpired
together for their common and mutual advantage, that fo the diligence
and carefulnefs of the Wife might amount to an equal proportion of
induftry, with the bufinefs and affairs tranfadted without-doors. There¬
fore neither the Bailiff, nor his Wife, had much bufinefs to do, when
their Maher and Miftrefs themfelves did daily review, overfee, and
manage their own affairs. But now-a-days, when moft part of Wives
are fo diffolved in luxury and idlenefs, that they do not, indeed,
vouchfafe to take upon themfelves the care of manufacturing wool for
their own cloaths, but difdain and fet light by cloaths made at home,
and with a perverfe defire, by fair words, obtain from their Hufbands
others that are more coftly, which are purchafed with great fums of
money, and coft almoft the whole yearly income of their eftates ; it
is no wonder at all, that thefe fame Ladies think themfelves mightily
burdened with the care of rural affairs, and of the implements of
Hufbandry, and efteem it a moft fordid and mean bufinefs, to flay a
few days in their country-houfes : for which realon, fince that an-
tient cuftom of the Sabine and Roman Miftreffes of families is not
only intirely grown out of fafhion, but alfo quite extindt; the bu¬
finefs and office of the Bailiff’s Wife, as a Keeper of the Manor-houfe,
is crept in as neceflary, that floe might perform the offices, and do the
bufinefs of the Matron : forafmuch as the Bailiffs alfo have fucceeded,
and come into the room of their Mafters, who, formerly, by antient
cuftom, did not only pradtife Hufbandry, but dwelt in the country
alfo. But, left I fhould feem to have unleafonably taken upon me
the office of a Cenfor, in reproving the manners of our own times,
I fhail now go on to defcribe the offices of the Bailiff s Wife.

CHAP.

Chap. I.

5°3

Of H U S B A N D R Y.

CHAP. I.

Of the Care that the Bailiff 's Wife ought to take of the
Houfjold- affairs ; and of the Precepts foe ought to obferve,

Moreover, (that we may keep to the method we have laid down,
which we began in the preceding book) ( i) the Bailiff’s Wife
ought to be a young Woman, that is, not too much of a Girl, for the
fame reafons we mentioned, when (peaking of the age of a Bailiff :
flie ought alfo to be of found health, and in her perfon neither ugly,
nor yet exceeding beautiful and handfome : for a found and robuft
eonftitution will enable her to fupport both watchings, and other
fatigues and labours : uglinefs will make her Mate loath and abhor
her, and too great beauty will make him lazy and flothful. Therefore
we muft take care, that we neither have a Bailiff that is unfettled,
and always wandering abroad, and has an averfion to be at home
with his Wife ; nor, on the other hand, one that is lazy, and loiters
at home, always lolling in his Wife’s arms.

But' the things we have mentioned are not the only precautions we
muft take with refpecft to the Bailiff’s Wife ; for, among the firft
things, it muft be confidered, whether fhe be very far from being ad¬
dicted to wine, delicious fare, fuperftitions, fleepinefs, and drowfinefs,
and keeping company with men, that fhe may have a concern and
care upon her mind, about what (lie ought to remember, and what
it is flie is to make provifion for, and to take care of for the future,
that, for the moft part, fhe may obferve and keep to the fame way
and manner of adting, as we commanded the Bailiff to obferve : be-
caufe the Hufband and the Wife ought to be like to one another in
moft things ; and that fhe be as ready to avoid what is evil, as to hope
for a reward of fuch things as floe has done well : alfo that fhe ufe
her utmoft endeavours, that the Bailiff employ himfelf as little, in
bufinefs within-doors, as poftible ; his bufinefs being to go forth with
the fervants early in the morning, and to return with them fatigued,
in the twilight, after they have finifhed their work.

Neverthelefs, by inftru&ing the Bailiff’s Wife, we by no means
difpenfe with the Bailiff’s care of houfh old-affairs, but we only alle¬
viate his labour, by giving him an aftiftant; But the feveral offices

(i.) He means the nth, wherein he treated of the qualifications of a Bailiff.

and

504 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

and duties, to be performed within-doors, muft not be wholly left to
the Woman's province ; but they muft be fo delegated to her, that,
from time to time, they may be alfo under the oblervation and eye
of the Bailiff : for thus the Bailiff’s Wife will be more diligent, if fhe
remembers, that there is one there, to whom fhe muft frequently give
an account.

Moreover, fhe ought to be fully perfuaded of this, that it is in¬
cumbent upon her to ffay at home, either wholly, or, at leaft, for
the moft part ; both that fhe may fend luch fervants out of doors, as
have bufinefs to do in the fields ; and to keep fuch of them within
the walls, as have any thing to do in the manor-houfe ; and to ob-
ferve, that they do not negledt their bufinefs, by fitting long ftill, and
doing nothing ; and carefully to examine and infpedt fuch things as
are brought into the houfe, and fee if there be no part of them im-
bezzled ; and fo, after they are examined and found found and in¬
tire, to receive them into her cuftody ; then to fet apart fuch things
as are defigned for confumption ; and to keep carefully fuch things
as can be faved, and that remain over and above the daily expence,
that fo the provifion of the whole year may not be fpent in one
month.

Moreover, if any one of the family begin to be in a bad ftate of
health, fhe muft fee, that he be well tended, and ferved with every
thing convenient for him, as much as is poflible : for from this kind
of care fpring benevolence and obfequioufnefs. As alfo they, who
have recovered their health, ftudy to ferve more faithfully than be¬
fore, when there is due care taken of them when they are fick.

CHAP. II.

After what Marnier Jhe ought to manage the Provijions , or

the Store-houfes.

AFTER all this, befides thefe things, fhe ought to remember
what things are brought into the houfe, that they be laid up in
proper and wholfome places, that they may continue there without
receiving any damage : for there is nothing that we ought to be more
careful of, than to prepare places where every thing may be laid up
fafely, that it may be brought out, and produced again, when there is
occafion for it. What fort of places tiiefe ought to be, we have

already

Chap. II. Of HUSBAND R Y. 505

already told you, both in the firft book, when we gave a plan and
defcription of a manor-houfe ; and in the eleventh, when we dif-
courfed of the office of a Bailiff: but, even at this time, we ffiali
not think it any great trouble, briefly to demonftrate and explain
them.

The higheft room of the houfe requires the veffels and the cloaths
of the greateft value: moreover, a ftore-houfe that is dry, and free
from moifture, is reckoned proper for corn ; that part of the houfe
which is cold, is moft commodious for keeping wine with fafety :
that part which is well lighted, demands the houffiold-furniture that
is brittle, and fuch forts of work to be done therein, as ffand in need
of much light.

Therefore having prepared the receptacles, fhe mu ft lay up and dif-
pofe every thing in its place, according to its kind, and alfo fome
things particularly by themfelves, that fo fhe may the more eaffiy lay
her hand upon them, when there fhall be occafion to ufe them : for
it is an old proverb, That it is the moft certain poverty, when you
ftand in need of any thing, not to be able to make ufe of it, becaufe
you know not the place where the thing, which you wrant, lies care-
lefsly thrown by. Therefore, in the management of family-affairs,
negligence is the occafion of more labour than diligence.

For who is he that doubts, that there is nothing more beautiful, in
every ftate and condition of life, than order and regularity ? which
we have frequent occafion to obferve, and take notice of, even in lu¬
dicrous fhews : for, when the chorus of the Singers does not agree in
certain meafures and cadences, nor keep time and proportion with the
Mafter that beats the time, and directs them, they feem to them that
hear them, to ling fomething that is diffonant, harfh, confufed, and
diforderly : but when, as it were, with one confent, they all confpire
and agree in certain numbers and meafures, and fo form a concert ;
from fuch an agreement of voices there is formed a certain found,
which is not only pleafant and delightful to the Singers themfelves,
but alfo the fpe&ators and hearers are charmed and raviflied with the
greateft pleafure and delight.

In an army alfo, neither the General, nor the Soldier, can be able
to execute any thing whatfoever, without order, and a right difpo-
fition of things ; feeing the armed man puts the unarmed into dis¬
order ; the horfeman the foot-foldier ; and the waggons and carriages
the cavalry j if they be mixed and jumbled together. This fame me¬
thod, of having every thing in readinefs beforehand, and of obferving
a .due order in every thing, is of great ufe and advantage on fliip-

T t t board

So6 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

board alfo : for when a ftorm comes on, and the lhip is in right order
as it {hould be, the tackling, and every other thing belonging to it,
being placed in its proper order, and in its own place, the Boatfwain,
or any other perfon whofe bufinefs it is, brings it out without being
in a confternation, when the Matter of the fnip calls for it.

Now if thefe things are of fo great importance, either in theatres,
or in armies, or even in {hips, there is no doubt, but the bufinefs of
the Bailiff’s Wife requires order, and a due difpofition of fuch things
as (he lays up : for every particular thing is the more eafily viewed
and examined, when it is affigned to its own place ; and, if any thing
happens to be out of its place, the empty place itfelf puts her in mind,
to make inquiry after what is wanting : and if there be any thing that
fhould be taken a particular care of, or adjufted, and make fit for ufe,
it is the more eafily taken notice of, when it is reviewed and num¬
bered in its own rank or order : concerning all which M. Cicero , fol¬
lowing the authority of Xenophon in his Oeconomic , thus introduces
Ifchomachus narrating thefe things to Socrates , who quettioned with
him concerning the lame.

CHAP. III.

Of the Diftributian of the Implements of Hufbandry , and

the Houjhold- furniture.

AFTER we had prepared proper places, we began to di (tribute
the tools, implements of Hufbandry, Houfhold-furniture, and
every thing belonging to a family : and, firtt of all, we placed by them-
felves all thofe things we are wont to make ufe of in celebrating
divine fervice ; afterwards the Womens apparel, which is provided for
holy-days, then the Mens apparel ; alfo their drefs for folemn days ;
as alfo fhoes fuitable for both fexes : then alfo arms, darts, and arrows
were laid apart by themfelves ; and, in another place, all the tools
they make ufe of for manufadturing of wool.

After which things were placed the vettels they are wont to make
ufe of for drefling of victuals ; then were fet in view the things which
belonged to walhing and bathing, and what things were neceflary for
elegant drefs and apparel, and what belonged to our daily table, and
to feafting and banquetting : afterwards, out of fuch things as we ufe
daily, we fet apart what might fuffice for one month ; and what

might

Chap. III. Of HUSBANDRY. 507

might fuffice for the whole year alfo we divided into two parts j for
thus we cannot be fo eafily deceived as to the time they will laft, and
when they will be at an end.

After we had fet all thefe things by themfelves, then we difpofcd
and placed them in due order, every thing in its own place :
then fuch things as the fervants ufe daily, and fuch as belong to the
manufacturing of wool, cooking, and dreffing of victuals, thefe very
things we delivered to the perfon who is wont to ufe them, and pointed
out the places where they fhould put them, and gave them charge to
keep them fafely.

But fuch things as we make ufe of upon holy-days, and when
Grangers come to our houfe, and upon other certain occafions, which
rarely happen ; thefe we delivered to the Larderer, and pointed out
a particular place for every one of them ; and we counted over to
every one the things they were to take the charge of; and, after we
had counted them over, we fet them down in writing ourfelves ; and
admonifhed him, that whatever thing there might be occafion to ufe,
he fhould know from what place he fhould give it, and remember,
and mark down, what, and when, and to whom he had given it ;
and that he fhould put every thing again in its own place, when he
.received it back again.

Thefe precepts of induftry and diligence the antients have delivered
to us in the perfon of Ifchomachus ; and we now explain and point them
out to the Bailiff’s Wife, who is employed as an Houfekeeper. Nor
yet muft her care be confined to this one thing, to lock up, and keep
fafely, fuch things as are brought into the houfe, and which fhe (hall
receive into her cuftody ; but let her review and examine them
from time to time, left either the houfhold-furniture, or the garments
that are laid up in the wardrobe, receive damage, and be fpoiled, or
grow mouldy with moifture, and lying-by; or the fruits of the earth,
or any tools and utenfils be fpoiled and rot through her negleCt and
lazinefs.

But in rainy days, or in cold and frofty weather, when a Woman
cannot go about any rural work in the open air, in order that fhe
may be put to manufacturing of wool, let the wool be prepared and
.combed beforehand, that fhe (the Bailiff’s Wife) may the more eafily
go through with, and exadt the ufual talk of fpinning and weaving ;
for it will do no hurt, if garments fit for fervants be made at home,
for herfelf, the Factor or Agent, and others in a more honourable
ftation in the family, that the Mafter of the family’s accounts may be
lefs burdened, and his charges leffened.

T t t 2 Moreover,

5o8 LJ.M.COLUMELLA Book XII.

Moreover, this alfo fhe muft conftantly watch over, and be parti¬
cularly careful of, that, when the fervants are already gone forth out
of the manor-houfe, fhe fearch and look for thofe whofe bufinefs it
is to be abroad, and employed in works of Hufbandry without-doors :
and, if any one of them, boggling and fauntering within-doors, (as
it happens) has efcaped the care of her Mate, that fhe inquire after
the caufe of his idlenefs, and examine and find out whether he has
flayed behind, and has been hindered by indifpofition, and want of
health, or has only fkulked through idlenefs and floth ; and, if fhe
fhall find him even counterfeiting feeblenefs, and want of ftrength;
let her conduct him, without any further delay, into the infirmary ;
for it is better, that a fervant, who is fatigued with his work, fhould
reft a day or two, under cuftody, than contract a real illnefs by too*
much labour.

In fine, fhe muft remain in one place as little as poflible, for her’s
is not a fedentary bufinefs y but fhe ought fometimes to come to the
web, and give inftrudtion, if there be any thing fhe knows better
than they j if not, to learn from him who may underftand and know
more than fhe does ; at other times fhe ought to come and look over
them that are cooking and dreffing the victuals for the family : as alfo
to take care, that the kitchen, and the ox-flalls, as alfo the mangers;
be made clean : alfo to open the infirmaries from time to time, even
fuppofe they have no fick people in them, and to clear and free them
from all manner of dirt and naflinefs, that, when neceflity fhall re¬
quire it, they may be configned in good order, and in a clean, neat,
and wholfome condition, to fuch as are fick and languifhing.

Alfo fhe ought to come unawares upon thofe who have the overf¬
light, and charge, and giving out of the provifions, and are Keepers
of the ftores, when they are weighing or meafuring any thing : as
alfo to be prefent with the Shepherds, when they are milking the ewes
in the folds, or putting the lambs, or the young of other cattle, to
the dug : fhe ought alfo to be prefent at the flieep-fheering, and ga¬
ther up the fleeces carefully, and count the fleeces, and compare them
with the number of the fheep : alfo to infill, and be very prefiing,
with them that have the care of the porch, that they fet out and air
the houfhold-furniture j and that the irons and the iron- tools be
fcoured and made bright, and freed from ruff ; and that the reft
of the things, if they want mending, be delivered out to the proper
Workmen to be mended, and make fit for ufe.

Laflly, after all thefe things are put into due order, I do not think,
that this diflribution will be of any advantage, unlefs, as I have faid,

the

Chap. IV. O/HUSBANDRY. 509

the Bailiff very frequently, and even the Matter and the Miftrefs of
the family, remark and take notice, how the eftablifhed order and
method is obferved. Which thing alfo has been conftantly obferved
in cities, where right policy and good manners have been ettablifhed,
whofe chief and principal men did not think it enough to have good
laws, unlefs they created the moft diligent citizens Guardians of the
fame, which the Greeks call vo/uoipuAcotcti (Guardians of the laws) : their
office was to bettow praifes and commendations, as alfo honours, upon
thofe who obeyed the laws, but to mulct and puniffi thofe who were
difobedient: which is now, indeed, the bufinefs of the Magittrates,,
who, by conftant adminiftration of juftice, preferve and maintain the
power of the laws. But let it fuffice to have delivered thefe things
in general, as abfolutely neceffary to the right management and govern¬
ment of a family.

G H A P. IV.

What Kinds of V effels foe ought < to prepare for falting and
pickling Provifion* , and for Conferves.

NOW we fhall give directions about the other things which were
omitted in the former book, becaufe we referved them for
the offices of the Bailiff’s Wife ; and, that fome order may be pre-
ferved, we fhall begin with the fpring of the year, becaufe both the
early and the trimeftrian fowings being fmifhed, then there happen
vacant times for executing thofe things we fhall hereafter teach.

The hiftorical records of former times inform us, that Car¬
thaginian and Greek authors, as alfo the Roman , were not wanting in
their care of fmall things: for both Mago the Carthaginian (1), and
Hamilcar (2), which Mnafias and Pax amus, no obfcure authors of

(1) Mago the Carthaginian has been already mentioned, lib. i. c. i. as the Father of
Husbandry- and, no doubt, the author mentions him again, in this place, to intimate,
that, although he was fo eminent a perfon, and whofe buftnefs, as a ruftic writer, was
chiefly to teach the art of Agriculture; yet he did not difdain to defcend even to the -
fmalleft parts of the ceconomy of a family.

(2) It is not certain who this Hamilcar was; probably he was the Father of Hannibal^
but neither Varro nor Pliny mention him as a ruftic writer. Mnafias is mentioned by
Varro and Pliny, as alfo by A then a us : he was of Patara , a city of Lyria in Letter Afiai
Faxamus is not mentioned neither by Varro , nor Pliny, nor M. Ambivius , nor M<enas
Liciuius ; but Caius Matius is mentioned by Tacitus : he lived in the time of the Emperor
Augufius , whofe favourite he feems to have been.

the

5io L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

the Greek nation, feem to have followed ; as al fo fome of our own
country, after they had reft from wars, did not think it below them
to contribute, as it were, a fort of tribute for the fuftenance of man¬
kind ; as M. Ambivius and Meenas Licinius , as alfo C. Matins , whofe
ftudy it was, by their precepts, to indriud and form the diligence of
a Baker, and of a Cook, and alfo of a Butler, or Clerk of the
Kitchen.

But all thefe authors were of the mind, that it was neceffary, that
he, who undertakes any of thefe offices, fhould be chafe and conti¬
nent, becaufe the whole confided in this, that neither cups, nor
victuals, fhould be handled, but by one under age ; or, at leaf, one
that mof carefully refrained from Venereal affairs, which if either
Man or Woman has meddled with, they ought to be wafhed and
cleanfed, either in a river, or in confantly running water, before ever
they touch the provif ons ; for which reafon the fervice of a boy, or a
virgin is neceffary for thefe things, by whom fuch things, as there
ffiall be occafion to ufe, may be brought out.

After this precept, they order a place, and proper veffels, for pow¬
dered provifions, pickles, preferved fruit, &c. to be prepared ; and,
that the place ought not to be expofed to the Sun, but the coldef and
the dried that can poffibly be had, led the providons contract mouldi-
nefs by the moidure. But thefe veffels mud be either of potters-
earth, or of glafs, rather more in number than large and fome of
them well pitched j neverthelefs, others of them mud be pure with¬
out pitch.

Thefe veffels mud be made on purpofe, with a wide mouth, and
equal to the very bottom, not diaped in the manner of a wine-veffel,
that fo, when the pickles are taken out for ufe, whatever remains
may be prefied down equally to the bottom, with a weight. ; for this
keeps the provifions from fpoiling, when they do not fwim upon, but
are always funk under the brine, which can fcarcely be done in the
belly of a wine-veffel, becaufe of the inequality of its fhape : it is
very neceffary for this to make ufe of vinegar, and of very drong
brine ; both which are made after this manner.

C H A P,

Chap. VI.

Of HUS BAN DRY. 5n

• ' * ‘ ' 4 • I. ■ J T * r *

CHAP. V.

How Vinegar may be made of flat Wine .

FOR forty-eight fextarii of vapid wine, that it may become acid,
bruife a pound of leaven, a quarter of a pound of dry figs, a
fextarius of fait ; and, after they are bruifed with a quarter of a pound
of honey, dilute them with vinegar, and fo put them to the forefaid
quantity : fome add to the fame quantity four fextarii of parched
barley, and forty burning walnuts, and a pound and an half of green
mint : fome heat maffes of iron in the fire, till they have the appear¬
ance of fire itfelf, and put them into the fame quantity of wine :
fome alfo, after they have taken out the kernels of five or fix pine¬
apples, fet the empty pine-apples themfelves on fire, and put them
down burning into the wine : others do the fame thing with burning
pine- fir- tree-nuts.

CHAP. VI.

How flrong Brine or Pickle may be made .

MAKE ftrong brine after this manner : In that part of the
manor-houle which receives moft of the Sun, place a barrel
or vale with a very wide mouth ; fill this veflel with rain-water, for
this is the fitteft water for this bufinefs ; or, if you have no rain¬
water, be fure that it be fpring-water of the fweeteft tafte : then into
this water put a rufh- or Spanijh broom-bafket, which muff be filled
with white fait, that the brine may be the whiter : when you {hall
fee, that the fait continues to melt for fome days, you fhall thereby
understand, that the brine is not as yet ripe.

Therefore you {hall ftill put in more fait from time to time, till it
remain in the bafket intire, without melting, which when you fhall
obferve, you fhall know, that the brine is come to its maturity : and,
if you have a mind to make other brine in the fame veflel, you fhall
pour this into veflels that are well pitched, and keep it covered in the
Sun ; for the ftrength of the Sun takes away all muftinefs, and gives
it a fweet fmell. There is another way to try if brine be ripe for,
i when

512 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

when you (hall have put fweet cheele into it, if it fink down to the
bottom, you fhall know, that it is not as yet ripe ; if it fwim in it,
you fhall know, that it is ripe.

€ H A P. VII.

t !

What Herbs may be pickled throughout the four Seafons of
the Tear , and after what Manner.

THESE things being prepared, about the vernal Equinox herbs
muft be gathered, and laid up for ufe, viz. fprouts, colewort
or cabbage, capers, the fmall tender ftalks of parfley, rue, aliffan-
der with its ftalk, before it comes out of its hofe : alfo the tender
tops of the ftalks of fennel-giant before they begin to fpread, and the
tendereft flower of the wild and garden parfnep, with its fmall ftalks ;
the flower of the white bryony, before it begins to fpread ; and of
afparagus, and butchers-broom, and buckthorn, and of the common
great houfleek, penny-royal, and cat-mint, and of wild colewort, and
famphire, and its fmall ftalk, which is called kite’s-footj as alfo the
fmall tender ftalk of fcnnei.

All thefe are very fafely preferved with one pickling, that is, if you
mix two parts of vinegar, and a third part of ftrong brine : but the
white bryony, the butchers-broom, and buckthorn, and afparagus,
wild colewort, and the parfnep, and the cat-mint, and famphire are
put into trays, according to their kinds ; and, when they are fprinkled
with fait, they are placed for two days in the ftiade, till they be all
in a fweat : then, if they have thrown out as much moifture, as that
they may be wafhed with their own juice, it is well ; if not, they pour
ftrong brine upon them, and wafti them therein, and fqueeze the
liquor out of them by a weight laid upon them ; then each of them
is put up into its own veffel, and the liquor, as I faid above, which is
mixed with two parts vinegar, and one of ftrong brine, is poured
upon them, and a fluffing of dry fennel, which was gathered laft year
during the vintage, is put upon them ; ib that it may prefs down the
herbs, and that the liquor may come up to the brim of the jar.

When you gather aliffander, fennel-giant, and fennel, expofe
them within-doors till they grow yellow j then pull the leaves, and all
the bark, off the ftalks : if the cabbages or colliflowers be thicker than
the thumb, cut them with a reed, and divide them into two parts :

alf©

Chap. VIII. Of HUSBANDRY. 5i3

alfo the flowers themfelves muft be laid open and divided, that they
may not be too large, and fo put up into veflels ; then the liquor
above-mentioned muft be poured upon them, and a few fmall roots
of lafer, which the Greeks call dh quov, added to them, and fo
covered with a fluffing of dry fennel, that the liquor may come up
over them.

Sprouts, cabbage or colliflowers, caper- flirub, kite’s-foot, penny¬
royal, the common great houfleek, muft be dried feveral days under
the roof, till they grow yellow, and then it is proper they fhould be
pickled in the fame manner as you did the fennel-giant, rue, favory,
and wild marjoram. There are fome who pickle rue with flrong
brine only, without vinegar ; then when they have occaflon to ufe it,
they wafh it with water, or even with wine; and, after they have
poured oil upon it, make ufe of it. With this pickling green garden
favory, as alfo green wild marjoram, may be commodioufly preferved.

CHAP. VIII.

How Oxygal, or four Milk , may be made .

MAKE oxygal, or four milk, after this manner: Take a new
pot, and bore a hole in it, hard by the bottom ; then with a
fprig llop up the hole you have made, and fill the veflel with the
freffiefl ewe-milk, and to it add fmall bundles of green feafoning
herbs, origany, mint, onion, coriander : put thefe herbs fo far down
into the milk, that the firings, wherewith they are tied, may appear on
the outfide.

After the fifth day, take out the fprig wherewith you flopped the
hole, and let out the whey ; then, when the milk begins to drop out,
flop up the hole with the fame fprig; and, after three days intermit-
fion, let out the whey in the fame manner as has been already laid ;
and take out the fmall bundles of feafoning herbs, and throw them
away ; then rub a little dry thyme, and dry wild marjoram, upon the
milk ; and add to it as much of a feftive leek, cut very fmall, as you fhall
think fit, and mix them together : after having flayed two days, let
out the whey again, and llop up the hole, and put as much brayed
fait to it as lhail be lufficient, and mix them ; then, having put a cover
upon it, and daubed it, you fhall not open the pot, till you fhall have
occafion to ufe it.

U u u

There

Si+ L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XI

There are fome, who, after they have gathered garden or even wild
dittander, or pepperwort, dry it in the fhade ; then, having thrown
away the ftalk, they fteep the leaves a day and a night in ftrong brine ;
and, after they have fqueezed the liquor out of them, they mix them
with the milk without the leafoning herbs, and add as much fait to
it as they think enough : then they do the other things we directed
above. Some mix young frefh leaves of dittander with the fweet milk
in the pot, and, after the third day, let out the whey in the manner
we have directed : then they find fome green favory, as alfo the dry
feeds of coriander, dill, thyme, and parfley j and bray them well into
one mafs, and add them to it, and mingle the beft-made and well-
fifted fait throughly with it. The other things above-mentioned they
do after the fame manner.

CHAP. IX.

Of Pickling of Lettuce.

HAVIN G cleanfed the ftalks of the lettuce from the lower part,
as far as where the leaves fhall feem to be tender, you muft
fait them in a tray, and let them alone a day and a night, till they
have thrown out their brine ; then wafh them, and take them out of
the brine ; and, after they are fqueezed, fpread them upon hurdles, till
they grow dry ; then fpread dry dill and fennel under them, and cut
a little rue and leek, and fo mix them together: then, when the little
ftalks are dried, you muft put them up in luch a manner, that green
kidney-beans in tire may be placed among them, the which you muft
fteep a day and a night before in ftrong brine ; and, after they are dried
in the like manner, they muft be put up with the bundles of lettuce,
and a liquor made of two parts of vinegar, and one of ftrong brine
poured upon them : then they muft be fo prefted down with a fluffing
of dry fennel, that the liquor may fwim above them.

That this may be done effectually, he that has the direction and
management of this affair, ought frequently to pour liquor upon them,
and not fuffer the pickles to grow dry, but wipe the outfide of the
velfels with a clean fponge, and cool them with the frefheft fpring-
water. After the fame manner you muft pickle endive, and the tops
of the blackberry-bufh, as you do lettuce ; as alfo of thyme, and
favory, and wild marjoram, and the fprouts of wild radifhes : but
thefe things above-mentioned are made up and pickled in the Spring.

CHAP.

Chap. X.

5*5

Of HUSBANDRY.

CHAP. X.

Of preferring of Onions , Pears , and Apples , and all Fruits

of the Apple-kind .

NOW we {hall give directions concerning fuch things as ought to
be gathered and laid up in Summer, about the time of harveft,
and alfo after the harveft is over: Choofe the Afcalonian or Pompeian
onion, or the fingle Marfian alfo, which Ruftics call unto ; and it is
that which has not put forth any fprouts or fhoots, and has not had
any offspring or young ones adhering to it (i).

Dry this firft in the Sun, and then, having cooled it in the {hade,
put it up in a jar, having fpread thyme, or favory, or wild marjoram,
under it ; and, having poured a liquor upon it, confiding of three parts
vinegar, and one of ftrong brine, put a lmall bundle of favory or wild
marjoram upon it, fo that the onion may be deprefled ; and when it
has drunk up the liquor, let the vefiel be filled up again with the like
mixture. At the fame time the fruit of the cornel-tree or cornel-
berries, and onyx-coloured plums, and wild plums, bullaces or
does j as alfo the feveral kinds of pears and apples, are preferved.

The fruit of the cornel-tree, or cornel- berries, which we may ufe
inftead of olives, alfo wild plumbs, or bullaces, or floes, and onyx-
coloured plumbs, muft be gathered while they are yet firm and folid,
and not when they are very ripe, nor yet muft they be too green ;
then they muft be dried one day in the fhade ; then let vinegar, and
muft boiled into one half or one third of the firft quantity, be mixed
together in equal quantities, and poured upon them. But you muft
add fome fait to them, left maggots, or any other animals, breed in
them : but they will keep better, if two parts of fweet muft, boiled
into one half of the firft quantity, be mixed with one part vinegar.

After you have gathered the Dolabellian , the Crufuminian , the
royal and Venus pears, the warden pears, the Neevian, the brick-
coloured pears, the huge fair pear, the laurel and mufk pears, and the
purple plums, before they are throughly ripe, neverthelefs not very

(x) Tr has been already obferved, that the a4fralonia?i onion had its name from Jlfca-
Innia , a city in Judea , and is, as fome think, what we call Jbalot, and the French ej'cha-
lotes The Pompeian has its name from Pompeii , a town in the kingdom ot Naples,
mentioned in the tenth book. The Marjtan was originally from the Marfi, a people
formerly inhabiting a part of the kingdom of Naples j the author himfelf mentions its
diltinguifliing character.

U U 11 2

green,

5i6 ■ L. J. M. COLUME LL A Book XII.

green, examine them carefully, and fee that they be found, without
any blemifb, or little worms in them ; then put them up in a pitched
earthen jar, and fill it either with raifin wine, or with muft boiled in
to a third of the firft quantity, fo that all the apples may be below
the liquor and, after you have put the cover upon it, plafler it.

I thought it neceffary to give you this direction upon the whole,
that there is no kind of apple, which may not be preferved in honey :
therefore, fince this thing is very falutary to fuch as are fick, I am of
opinion, that a few apples, at leaft, fhould be preferved in honey, but
kept feparate according to their kinds ; for, if you mix them together,
one kind is corrupted by the other. And, feeing we have very oppor¬
tunely made mention of honey, at this fame time the bee-hives muft
be caftrated, and the honey and the wax made : of which we have
already fpoken in the ninth book. Nor do we now require, that the
Houfe-keeper, the Bailiff’s Wife, fhould take any other care upon
her in this matter ; but, that fhe be prefent with them that have the
management of this affair, and take the fruit into her cuftody.

CHAP. XI.

Of the Compofition of a fuoeet Water , which they ufe for the

preferving of Fruit , See.

BUT forafmuch as, at the fame time, bees-wax- water (i), as
alfo mead, ought to be laid up, in order to be kept till they
grow old ; you muft remember, that, when you have received the
Secondary honey from the honey-combs, the wax be prefently fepa-
rated and broken into very fmall pieces, and fteeped in fpring- or rain¬
water ; and, after the water is fqueezed out, let it be ftrained, and
poured into a leaden veffel, and boiled, and let all the filth and nafti-
nefs be taken off it with the feum : after it is boiled, when it is as
thick as muft fodden in to a third part of its firft quantity, let it
be cooled, and put up in ftone bottles well pitched.

Some ufe this bees-wax- or honey-water inftead of mead ; fome
alfo make ufe of it, inftead of muft fodden in to a third of the firft

(i) Mella. This feminine fubftantive, though twice mentioned in this chapter, and
alfo cap. 47. is not to be found in feveral Didcionaries : it is a liquor made with water,
and the frefh bees-wax fteeped in it for a certain time, and afterwards boiled, as here
dtredted.

quantity.

Chap. XII. Of HUSBANDRY. • 517

quantity, for preferving of olives j for which, indeed, I think it is
more proper, becaufe it gives a relifh, and is favory for eating : and it
cannot be a remedy, inftead of mead, to fuch as are in a languishing
condition ; becaufe, if they drink it, it caufes an inflation of the
ftomach, and the bowels.

CHAP. XII.

Of the TVay to make Mead .

THerefore having fet apart this bees-wax-water, and deftinated it
for preferving of fruits, mead muft be made by itfelf of the
very befl honey ; but it is not made after one manner : for fome,
many years before, put up rain-water in veflels, and fet it in the Sun
in the open air y then, having emptied it from one veffel to another,
and made it very clear, (for, as often as it is poured from one veffel to
another, even for a long time, there is found, in the bottom of the
veffel, fome thick fettling like dregs) they mix a fextarius of old water
with a pound of honey.

Neverthelefs fome, when they have a mind to make the mead of a
rougher taffe, mingle a J'extarius of water with three quarters of a pound
of honey ; and after they have, according to this proportion, filled a ftone
bottle, and plaiftered it, they fuffer it to be forty days in the Sun, during
the rifing of the Dog-ftar •, then they put it up in a loft, which receives
fmoak. Some, who have not been at the pains to preferve rain-water
till it becomes old, take that which is frefh, and boil it in to a fourth
part : then, after it is grown cold, if either they have a mind to make
mead fweeter than ordinary, they mix a J'extarius of honey with two
I'extarii of water ; or, if they would have it rougher, they put three
quarters of a pound of honey to a fextarius of water ; and, having made
it according to thefe proportions, they pour it into a done bottle ; and,
after they have kept it forty days in the Sun, as I faid above, they,
put it up in a loft, which receives fmoak from below.

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

CHAP. XIII.

Of preferving Cheefe , and pickling certain Herbs .

HIS is the fitted. time for preparing cheefe for domeftic ufes,

when both the cheefe fends forth, or throws out, the leaft

whey ; and in the latter feafon, now when there is but little milk, it
is not fo expedient to take up the Labourers time in carrying the
fruits to the market : and, indeed, when they are carried to market
during the Summer, they often fpoil by turning four ; therefore it is
better to make them up for ufe at this very time. And it belongs to
the office of a Shepherd, to fee that it be as well done as poffible ;
to whom we gave directions in the feventh book, which he ought to

follow.

There are alfo certain herbs, which you may pickle when the vint¬
age approaches ; as purjlain , and that lateward potherb , which fome
call garden fampbire. Thefe herbs are carefully cleanfed, and fpread
in the (hade ; then, on the fourth day, they fpread fait in the bottoms
of jars, and each of the herbs is put up apart by itfelfj and, after they
have poured vinegar into the veffiels, they again put fait over the herbs;
for ftrong brine is not proper for thefe herbs.

CHAP. XIV.

Of drying Apples and Pears in the Sun.

AT this fame time, or even in the beginning of the month of Aa-
gujt , they pick out apples and pears of the fweeteft tafte, and
middling ripe ; and, when they have divided them into two or three
parts, with a reed or a bone- knife, they lay them in the Sun, till they
grow dry. If there be great plenty of them, the Peafants preferve
them as not the leaf! part of their food during Winter ; for they are
intlead of dainties to them, as figs, which, when they are laid up dry,
contribute greatly to the fuftenance of country-people during the
Winter-time.

CHAP.

Chap. XV. Of HUSBANDRY.

5i9

CHAP. XV.

Of dry Figs.

H E S E ought to be gathered when they are neither too ripe,
nor too green, and fpread abroad in a place which may receive

the Sun : and they fallen flakes at the diftance of four feet from each
other, and couple them together with poles laid acrofs them. Then
upon thefe frames they place canes made for this ule, fo that they
may be at the diftance of two feet from the earth, left they attract
the moifture, which the ground commonly fends forth in the night :
then they throw the figs upon them ; and on each fide they place,
flat upon the ground, Shepherds hurdles, woven either with haulm,
or fedge, or fern, that fo, when the Sun is near fetting, they may be
eredted, and, being placed leaning towards each other, may, with their
arched roof, in the manner of a fhed or lodge, defends the figs, which
begin to grow dry, from the dew, and fometimes from the rain for
both thefe fpoil the forefaid fruit.

Then, after the figs are dried, about the middle of the day, while
they are warm, you muft put them in jars that are well pitched,
and tread them down carefully : neverthelefs dry fennel muft be laid
under them, and then put over them, when the veflels are filled :
which veflels it is proper forthwith to put covers upon, and to daub
them over, and lay them up in the dried: ftore-houfe you have, that
the figs may keep the better all the year long.

Some, after they have gathered the figs, take away their pedicles
or ftalks, and fpread them in the Sun ; then, after they are dried a
little, before they begin to grow hard, they gather them together into
earthen or done veflels ; then with their walked feet they tread them
down as they do meal, and mix with them parched fefamum, with
Egyptian anife, and fennel- and cumin-feeds.

When they have trodden thefe well together, and mixed the whole
mafs of the bruifed figs throughly, they wrap up fmall lumps of it
in fig-tree-leaves ; and, having tied the lumps with a rufih, or any
other herb, they lay them upon hurdles, and fuffer them to dry :
then, when they are throughly dried, they put them up in pitched
veflels. Some put up figs, in this very form, in tubs and jars without
pitch ; and, having daubed the veflels, they toaft them either in a
imall moveable, or great oven, that all the moifture may be dried up
4 the

520 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

the more fpeedily : after they are dried, they lay them up in a loft j
and, when they have occaflon to ufe them, they break the earthen
veffel ; for othervvife they cannot take out the hardened mafs of

figs-

Others pick out all the fatteft of the green figs, and, having divided
them, either with a reed or with their fingers, dilate them, and fo
buffer them to grow dry in the Sun : then, when they are well dried
with the warmth of the middle of the day, and when they are foften-
ed with the heat of the Sun, they gather them together : and, as it
is the cuftom with the Africans and Spaniards , after they have put
them into a certain regular pofition with one another, they fqueeze
them, and reduce them into the figures of ftars, and fmall flowers,
or into the form of bread ; then they dry them again in the Sun, and
fo put them up in veffels.

CHAP. XVI.

Of making dried Raifins , or Raijins of the Sun, and pre¬
fer ving Sorb- apples.

Cl RAPES require the like care as Jigs : When the weather is
J fair and dry, in the decline of the Moon, after the fifth hour
oi the day, you muff gather fuch of them as are white, of the fweeteft
taffe, with the largeft grains, not too thick and clofe upon one an¬
other • and fpread them for a little while upon boards, left, being laid
clofe upon one another, they be bruifed with their own weight :
then, having prepared beforehand a lixivium of the allies of vine-
fprays, it is proper, that it be warmed in a kettle, or in a new large
earthen pot ; and, when it boils, that a little of the very beft oil be
added to it, and fo mixed throughly together j then, that the grapes,
two or three clufters of them being tied together, according to their
bignefs, be put into the boiling kettle, and kept in it a little while,
till they be difcoloured : nor rauft you again buffer them to boil
throughly; for here a certain moderation and temperament is neceffary.
Then, when you fliall have taken them out, lay them in order upon
an hurdle, and at fuch a diftance, as not to touch one another : then,
after three hours, turn each bunch, and do not lay it again in the
lame place where it lay before, left it be fpoiled by the moifture which
runs from it. But, in the night-time, they ought to be covered in the

fame

Chap. XVII. Of HUSBANDRY. 521

fame manner as figs, that they may be defended from the dew, or the
rain : then, after they are moderately dried, put them into new vef-
fels, with covers upon them, without any pitch, but plaiftered ; and
lay them up in a dry place.

Some wrap up grapes to be dried in the Sun in fig-leaves, and
fo dry them ; others cover the half-withered grapes with vine- or
plane- tree-leaves, and fo put them up in amphors. There are fome
who burn the ftalks of beans, and of the allies thereof make a lixivium ;
then to three fextarii of the lixivium they add ten cyathi of fait,
and one cyathus of oil ; then they fet it on the fire, and warm it, and
fo perform the other things in the fame manner as before. But if
it fhall appear, that there is but little oil in the kettle, let as much be
added,, from time to time, as fhall be fufficient, that fo the raifins
may be the brighter and the fatter.

At the fame time gather and pick out the bed: fervice-apples, and
put them carefully into little pots, and put pitched covers upon them,
and daub them with plafler ; then after you have made trenches or
pits, two feet deep, within the houfe, place the little pots together
therein, fo that their mouths, which are daubed over with plafter,
may look downward : then gather the earth together, and tread it
down foftly upon them. But it is better to place fewer veflels, at a
diftance from each other, in feveral pits ; for in taking them out,
while you are taking away one, if you move the reft, the forb-apples
will quickly fpoil. Some alfo preferve this fame apple very well in
muft, boiled into one third of the firft quantity, putting a fluffing of
dry fennel upon them, that thereby the fervice-apples may be fo prefled
down, that the liquor may always fwim above them ; and notwith-
ftanding this, they carefully daub the pitched covers with plafter, that
no air may be able to get in.

CHAP. XVII.

Of making Vinegar of Figs .

THERE are certain countries, wherein there is a fcarcity of
wine, and confequently of vinegar alfo : therefore at this fame
time, the frefheft figs muft be gathered as ripe as poflible ; yea, even
tho’ the rains be now come on, and they be fallen upon the ground by
reafon of the fhowers j which, when they are picked up, are put

X x x into

$22 L.J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

into firkins or barrels, and there left to ferment: then, when they
have thrown out their juice, and it is grown acid, whatever vinegar
they have yielded is carefully ftrained, and poured into pitched veffels
that have a good fmell. This will be as good for ufe, as the fharpeft
vinegar of the firft note; and will never contract any bad fmell, or
grow mufty, if it is not put in a moift place.

There are fome, who, having regard to the quantity, mix water
with the figs, and add to them the ripeft frefh figs from time to time,
and fuffer them to confume and diflolve in that liquor, till it have the
tafte of {harp-enough vinegar : afterwards they {train it through a
rufh-frail, or a bag made of Spanijh broom j then, when the vinegar
is clear, they boil it till they take away the fcum, and all the filth and
nafiinefs from it ; then they add a little toafted fait to it, which hin¬
ders little worms and other animals to breed in it.

CHAP. XVIII.

Of fuch "Things as mufi he prepared for the Vintage (i).

ALthough, in the preceding book, which is intituled the Bailiffs
we have already told what things mufi be prepared for the vint¬
age ; neverthelefs, it will not be improper to give directions, to the
Bailiff’s Wife, concerning the fame things, that {he may underfiand,
that whatever things, relating to the vintage, are tranfaCted within¬
doors, ought to be under her infpeCtion and care.

If the ground is of a large extent, or if the vineyards, and the
plantations of trees for the fupporting of vines, be large, veffels, con¬
taining three modii and ten modii , mufi; be made year after year, and

(i) It may be neceffary here to obferve, that dolium , feria , and cadus, denote no cer¬
tain determinate meaiure j thefe veffels were of different fixes, fome larger, fome fmaller. In
this chapter there is mention made of a dolium fefqiiiculeare. , i. e. of a culeus and an half,
which contained 214. gallons, 7 pints, and a little more- which, I reckon, was one of
their largeft fort which they fixed in the ground. And, in the xxviiith chapter of this
book, we read of a feria of 7 amphora, which make about 57 gallons; and he makes
mention there of a cadus which contained two urna , which make 7 gallons and one pint,
and a little more. All thefe different veffels cannot well be mandated by any Englijb
words exadlly anfwering, mod part of modern wine-veffels being intirely different from
thofe in ufe among the zntAent'Romans ; and, being for feveral ages made moftly of earth,
they were, both in their fhape and capacity, very different from ours : though afterwards
they were made of wood in many places, efpecially near the Alps, which probably at
firft differed very little from the others, except in the fluff they were made of.

fmall

Chap. XVIII. O/HUSBANDRY. 523

fmall bafkets muft be woven and pitched ; as alfo fmall Tickles or
bills, and iron-hooks in great number muft be prepared, and well
whetted, left the Grape-gatherer ftrip off the bunches of grapes with
his hand, and no fmall part of the fruit flip out of his hands, and be
loft, by fcattering the berries upon the ground.

Small cords muft be fitted to the little balkets, and leather-ftrops
to the veffels that contain three modii j alfo the wine-vat, and the
preffes, and the places where the grapes are preffed, and all the vef¬
fels, muft be throughly wafhed with fea-water, if the fea be near at
hand ; if not, they muft be wafhed with frefh water, and carefully
cleanfed and dried, left they contain any moifture. The wine-cellar
alfo muft be cleared from all dung and dirt, and perfumed with good
odours, that it may not fend forth any ftinking favour, or have any
four fmell.

Then facrifices muft be offered, with the greateft fandtimony and
purity, to Liber and Libera (2), and to the veffels belonging to the
wine-prefs : nor muft the Bailiff’s Wife depart from the wine-prefs,
or the wine-cellar, during the vintage, that they who manage and
prepare the muft, may do all things in a clean and neat manner ; and
that no opportunity may be given to a thief to lay hands on, and
intercept the fruit that is there.

The hogfheads alfo, and buts, and other veffels, muft be pitched
forty days before the beginning of the vintage j and fuch of them as
are funk into the ground, muft be done after one manner ; and thofe
that ftand above-ground, after another : for thofe that are funk into
the ground, are heated with burning iron-lamps ; and the lamp, when it
has diftilied the pitch into the bottom of the veffel, being removed, the
pitch, which has diftilied to the bottom, or has ftuck to the fides, is
fpread wuth a fkealing-ftick, and a crooked iron-fcraper ; then it is
wiped with a mop, and, after exceeding hot boiling pitch is poured

(2) Libero Liber aque. It is not very certain whether the author here, by Liber , means
Eacchus , who, indeed, is frequently called by this name ; becaufe, as fome fay, wine
chears the mind, and frees ic from anxiety and care: but the difficulty is to tell, who
this Libera was: Cicero , de Natura Deorum , mentions one Liber different from Bacchus ,
who, with Libera and Ceres , were rcligioufly worfhipped by the Romans. Some by
Ceres mean the Earth, and by Liber and Libera the Sun and the Moon : and, both in
Livy and Tacitus , there is mention made of a temple dedicated to Ceres, Liber , and Li¬
bera : their facrificing to thefe was common enough; but their paying 2ny fuch refpedl:
to the veffels they made ufe of in prefftng their grapes, &c. is not fo evident. Perhaps
the text is corrupted here, as in fome other places, and it ought to be read, as the learned
Gefnerus conjectures, e vajis prejjoriis; and fo the meaning will be, that they ufed thefe
veffels, at that time, in the facrifices they offered when they began their vintage, in
order to purify and confecrate them.

X X X 2

into

524 L.J.M, COLUMELLA Book XU,

into it, the pitch is fpread over it with another new fkealing-ftick, and
a fmall befome.

But Inch vefiels as ftand above-ground, are brought out to the Sun
feveral days before they are cured ; then, when they have been long
enough expofed to the Sun, they are turned upon their brims, and
fufpended upon three fmall ftones put under them ; and fo a fire is
put under them, and kept fo long burning, till fuch a vehement heat
comes up to the bottom of the veffel, that the hand, when it is
applied to it, cannot endure it ; then the hogfhead being fet down
upon the ground, and laid upon its fide, the hotted boiling pitch is
poured into it, and it is rolled up and down, that all the parts of the
hogfhead may be daubed with it.

But thefe things ought to be done in a calm day, when there is no
wind, left the vefiels fhould burft by putting the fire to them, when
the wind blows upon them. But twenty-five pound-weight of hard
pitch, is enough for pipes that contain a culeus and an half : nor is
there any doubt, but if a fifth part of Erutian pitch (3.) be added to
the whole quantity that is boiled, it will be of very great advantage
to all the vintage.

CHAP. XIX.

Of feveral Compojitions for preferving and Jlrengthening

Wins.

CARE alfo muft be taken, that the muft, which is fqueezed out
of the grapes, may keep for a long time, or, at leaft, that it be
durable till it be fold : after what manner this ought to be done, and
with what compofitions it may be benefited and preferved, we fhall
next fet before you. Of the muft which they have thrown into

(]) Pix Brutia. Pliny tells us, that liquid pitch, which, no doubt, is what we call
tar-, was obtained from the pine-tree, and fir-trees of feveral forts, by cutting them into
billers, and ranging them into piles, and furrounding them with furnaces, the heat of
which made the wood exfude the moifture it contained : the firft running of this liquor
they called liquid pitch : the fecond running was thicker, and was properly what they
called pitch ; this being thrown into caldrons, and boiled to a certain degree, when it
was coagulated, took the name of Endian pitch: ic was more vifeous and glutinous than
that other pitch, and of a bright- fhining reddifh colour; and, when the greateft part of
its moifture was exhaled by the heat, it was called dry pitch ; and, becaufe it was at
firft made by the Brutii , a people in Calabria, or, at leaft, in the greateft perfe&ion, they
therefore called it Brutian pitch.

leaden

Chap. XIX. Of HUSBANDRY. 525

leaden veffels, fome boil away a fourth part of it, others a third : nor
is there any doubt, but, if any fhould boil it to one half, he would
make a better rob of grapes, and fo much the more profitable for ufe,
infomuch, indeed, that, inftead of muff boiled in to one third of the
firft quantity, this muft , boiled away into one half, may fuffice to
preferve the muft which is the produce of old vineyards.

Whatever character the wine may be of, which can be kept for
years, without any compofition or mixture to preferve it, we are of
opinion that is the beft ; nor muft any thing at all be mixed with it,
whereby its natural tafte may be blunted or allayed ; for that, which
can pleafe by its own natural quality alone, is the moft excellent. But
when, either through the fault of the country, or of new vineyards, the
muft labours under any defedt, we muft make choice of a part of an
Aminean vineyard (if we have any in our poffeffion) ; if we have none,
then we muft make choice of a vineyard, which produces the neateft
and the moft agreeable wine j. and which is neither very antient, nor
yet wet and marfhy.

Then we muft obferve when the Moon is decreaftng, and when fire
is under the Earth; and, in a clear and dry day, we muft gather the
very ripeft grapes, which, being trodden out, we muft carry from the
vat to the veffels wherein we make the rob of grapes, as much of the
muft which has flowed from the grapes before the ftalks and hulks
are preffed, as we fhall have occafion for ; and we muft heat the fur¬
nace, at firft, with a gentle fire, and with very fmall pieces of wood,
fuch as the Peafants call brufh-wood, that fo the muft may boil at
leifure.

And let him, who has the charge of boiling it, have ready pre¬
pared beforehand rufh- or Spanijh broom-ftrainers, made of raw Spa-
nijh broom, that is, which has not been beetled ; as alfo bundles of
fennel tied to clubs, which he may put down to the very bottom of
the veffels, that he may ftir up whatever part of the dregs fhall have
fubfided, and bring them to the top; then let him take away, with
the ftrainers, all the filth that rifes up, and fwims upon the top in
great abundance : nor let him defift from doing this, till the muft ap¬
pear clear and free from all manner of dregs : then let him either put
quinces into it, which he muft take away when they are throughly
boiled, or any other agreeable and fuitable odours he fhall think pro¬
per. Neverthelefs, let him ftir it up throughly, from time to time,
with the fennel, left any thing fubfide which may perforate the leaden
veffel.

But

526 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XII.

But now, when the vefiel fhall be able to bear a fiercer fire, that

is, when the muft, being in fome part boiled away, {hall now feeth
into itfelf, then let flumps of trees, and larger wood, be put under

it, but fo as not to touch the bottom of it; for, unlefs this be avoided,
either the veffel itfelf, which fometimes happens, will be pierced
through ; or if this is not done, the muft will certainly be burnt-to,
and, having contracted a bitternefs, will be unfit to be ufed as a pre-
lerve for any thing : but, before the muft is thrown into the vefiels
for boiling it in to a certain quantity, it is neceffary, that fuch of them
as are made of lead, be foaked and anointed with good oil in the in-
fide, and well rubbed, and fo the mull put into them : this thing
hinders the fodden muft to be burnt-to.

CHAP. XX.

Of boiling Muft into o?ie half or into one third of the firjl

Quantity,

BUT even the rob of grapes alfo, or the fweet mull:, fodden into
one third of the firft quantity, though carefully made, ufes to
grow four in the fame manner as wine ; and fince it is fo, we muft
remember to preferve our wine with muft, fodden into a third part
of a year old, the goodnefs of which we have already had fufficient
proof of ; for the fruit which we have gathered is corrupted, and
fpoiled with a bad medicament. But the vefiels themfelves, wherein
the muft, which is to be reduced into one half, or one third of the
firft quantity, is boiled, ought rather to be of lead than of brafs; for,
in the boiling, the brazen vefiels throw out a ruft, and corrupt the
tafte of the medicament.

The odours which are commonly proper for wine, and are boiled
with the fodden muft, are the flower- de-luce y fenugreek , Jweet rufh :
one pound weight Gf each of thefe things ought to be put into a muft-
caldron, which has received ninety amphorce of muft, juft after it has
left off boiling, and is cleared from all its filth. Then, if the muft
be of its own nature (mall, when it is boiled away to a third part, the
fire muft be withdrawn from it, and the furnace muft be forthwith
cooled with water : which tho’ we have done, neverthelefs the fodden
muft finks below the third part of the veffel. But, tho’ this may be
of fome detriment, yet it has its advantage ; for, the more it is

5 boiled

Chap. XX. Of HUSBANDRY. 527

boiled away, (provided it be not burnt-to) the better and thicker it
will be.

But, of this muft, boiled after this manner into a third part of
the firft quantity, it will be fufficient to mix one fextarius with one
amphora of wine : for, when you have boiled ninety amphorce of muft
in a muft-caldron, fo that there is but a little over and above the
quantity to which it is to be boiled, (that is to fay, a third part of the
firft quantity) then, and not before, add the medicaments to it, which
may be either liquid or refinous; that is, ten fextarii of liquid Nerne-
turican pitch or tar (i), when you have firft carefully wafhed it with
boiled fea- water j alfo a pound and an half of turpentine refin.

When you fhall have added thefe things to it, you fhall fhake and
ftir the leaden veftel throughly, that they may not burn-to : then,
when the boiling liquor is funk down to a third part, withdraw the
fire ; and you muft ftir the leaden veftel from time to time, that the
fodden muft and the medicaments may mix together : then, when the
muft, boiled into a third part of its firft quantity, fhall feem tolerably
warm, you {hall, by little and little, fprinkle the reft of the fpices
into it, after they are bruifed and lifted ; and you fhall order what
you have boiled to be ftirred with a wooden ladle, till fuch time as it
grows cold : but, if you do not throughly mix it, as we diredt, the
fpices will fubfide, and burn-to.

But, to the forefaid quantity of muft thofe odours ought to be added,
the leaf of J'pikenard , the Illyrian Iris or flower-de-luce (2), Gallican
fpikenard , dates , coflutn (3), cyperus [ 4), flivect ruflh j of which half
a pound each will fuffice : alfo five ounces of myrrh , a pound-weight
of calamus , half a pound of cafia , a quarter of a pound of amomum ,
five ounces of flajflron , a pound of melilot.

Thefe, as I faid, dry, bruifed, and lifted, ought to be added to it ;
and with them a certain quantity of crude pitch ought to be mixed :
and the older that is, fo much the better it is reckoned j for, become-
ing harder by long keeping, when it is bruifed, it is reduced into
powder, and mixed with thefe medicaments : but it is fufficient, that

(1) Nemeturicd picis liquid*. Pliny mentions the Nemeturi among the people inhahir¬
ing the Alps : probably they made a fort of liquid pitch or tar, which was reckoned belt
for prefrving wine j and it had its name from the people who made it j as the Brutiau,
Narycian^ fee,

(2) Iris 1! lyric a, the Illyrian flower deduce : the bed fort of it grew ia the inland parts
of Illyrium, from which country it has its name.

(3) Coflus , or cojfum, as our author has ir, is an Indian Ihrub, greatly efteemed for its
root, which has a mod fragrant fmell ; fo that they called it commonly, by way of emi¬
nence, radix , the root , as they did the leaf of fpikenard folium, the leaf.

(4) Cyperus} an angular rulh of an agreeable foiellj like fpikenard.

fix

528 L. J, M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

fix pounds of this be mixed with the forefaid quantities. It is uncer¬
tain, how much of this compofition muft be put to forty-eight fax -
tarii of muft ; becaufe, according to the nature of the wine, an
eftimation muft be made, how much may be enough: and we muft
take care, that the tafte of the medicaments, ufed for preferves, be
not felt ; for that will drive away the buyer.

Neverthelefs, if the vintage be wet, I ufually mix four ounces of
this medicament ; if dry, three ounces of it, with two amphora of
muft [fo that the quantity of muft be four urns , and the urna con¬
tain twenty-four Jextarii ]. 1 know, that fome Hufbandmen have

put three ounces of the medicament into each amphora ; but that they
were forced to do this, becaufe of the too great weaknefs of this fort
of wine, which fcarcely continued found for thirty days.

Neverthelefs, if there be plenty of wood, it is better to boil this
muft, and to purge all the fcum and dregs out of it; by doing which
a tenth part of it will wafte, but the reft will keep long: but, if
there be a fcarcity of wood, you muft mix an ounce of what they
call the flower of marble, or of bruifed ftone, for plafter ; as alfo
two Jextarii of rob of grapes, or muft fodden in to a third part of the
firft quantity, with each amphora of the wine: this thing, tho’ it does
not make the wine altogether durable, yet it preferves the tafte of it
till another vintage.

€ H A R XXI.

Of Rob of Grapes , or Muft boiled in to a third Part of its
firft Quantity ^ put to Wine to preferve it till it become
old.

LET muft, of the very fweeteft tafte, be boiled in to a third
part of its firft quantity ; and, after it is boiled in, &s I faid above,
it is called defrutum , ( rob of grapes , or muft J'odden in to a third part)
which, when it is grown cold, is decanted into vefiels, and laid up,
that after a year it may be made ufe of ; neverthelefs, it may alfo
be put into wine nine days after it is cooled: but it is better, if it
reft a year. A Jextarius of this fodden muft is put into two urns of
muft, if the muft be of hilly vineyards ; but if of champagne vine¬
yards, they put three hemines to it.

But

Chap. XXI. Of HUSBANDRY. 529

But, when the muft is taken cut of the vat, we fuffer it to leave
off fermenting for two clays, and to grow cool, and be purged : on
the third day, we add to it the rob of grapes (i. e. muft fodden in to
a third part) ; then, after the fpace of two days, when that muft has,
in like manner, left off* fermenting with the rob of grapes, and is
cooled, we purge it, and fo throw into it an heaped ligula (i) of
toafted and bruifed fait, or fuch a quantity as is a very large 24th part
of a fextarius. But they throw the whiteft fait they can find into an
earthen pot without pitch ; which pot, after it has received the fait,
they carefully daub with clay mixed with ftraw, and fo put it to the
fire, and then keep it as long toafting, as the fait makes a noife, and
cracks : when it has begun to be filent, they leave off toafting it.

Moreover, they fteep fenugreek in old wine for the fpace of three
days ; then they take it out, and dry it in an oven, or in the Sun ;
and, when it is dried, they grind it; and of this, when it is ground,
after the muft has been falted, they put an heaped fpoonful, or fuch
a kind of cupful or meafure , as is the fourth part of a cyatbus , into
two urtis of it. Then, when the muft has intirely left off ferment¬
ing, and has flood ftill, we mix as great a quantity of the flour of
calcined ftone with it, as we had put fait into it : and fo, the day fol¬
lowing, we purge the wine-velfel, and cover up the wine we have
preferved, and daub it all over.

My uncle Columella , an illuftrious Hufbandman, was wont to ufe
this fort of preferve, in thofe lands wherein he had marfhy vineyards ;
but the fame illuftrious perfon, when he preferved wines that grew on
hills, inftead of fait, put falt-water, boiled into one third of the firft
quantity, to them : this, indeed, without doubt, makes it meafure
more, and of a better flavour ; but it is attended with danger, left the
wine be vitiated, if the water be ill boiled. But this water, as I have
already faid, is taken up as far from the fhore as can be conveniently
done ; for the further from fhore, and the deeper the fea is from
whence it is drawn, the clearer and the purer it is.

If any one fhall lay it up, and keep it, (as Columella did) after the
fpace of three years, when it is ftrained, and perfectly clear, let him

(1) Ligula at firft fi unified a fpoon, hut afterwards it was ufed as a meafure, and, I be¬
lieve, thefnialcft in ufe among the Romans, at leaft mentioned by our author; it was
moftly ufed for liquids, but here ir is put for a diy rneafure : an i Co/umel'a makes an
heaped ligula equal to a femuncia bene plena’, 1 y wlvch, I think, he means not the half
of an ounce in weight, but the 24th part of the fextarius , which was a meafure of dry
things as well as of liquid, an! was divided in the fame manner as the as, and its divi-
fions had the fame names, aid it is mandated accordingly : however, I believe there is no
great difference between a pound-weighr, and a fextarius full of fait.

y y y

pour

530 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XIL

pour it into other veffels ; then, after other three years, let him boil
it into a third part : thus he will have a much better preferve for his
wine, nor will his wines be in any danger of fpoiling. But it is
enough to put one fextarius of falt-water to every two arm of muft ;
altho’ many alfo mix two fextarii with that quantity, and fome three
alfo : and I would not refufe to do this, if the kind of wine has fo
much ftrength, as the tafte of the falt-water may not be felt.

Therefore a diligent Mailer of a family, when he has purchafed
and prepared his ground, will, the firft vintage, prefently make trial
of three or four different fort of preferves upon as many amphors of
muft, that he may have a full proof, how much falt-water the
wine, which he has made, will be able to bear, without hurting the
tafle of it.

CHAP. XXII.

Another Medicament of liquid Pitch (or Tar) wherewith you-

may preferve Wine .

PUT a firkin of liquid Nemeturian pitch into a tub or trough, and
pour into the fame two congii of a lixivium of afhes ; then mix
them throughly with a wooden fpatula : when it is fettled, drain off
the lixivium ; then put a fecond time the fame quantity of lixivium
to it ; mix it throughly, and drain it off after the fame manner : do
the fame thing a third time alfo ; for the afhes take away the fmell of
the pitch, and wafh the filth out of it. Afterwards, add to the dime
five pounds of Brutian pitch ; or, if you have not that, of fome other
pitch, the cleaned you can find ; thefe divide into fmall pieces, and
mix them with the Nemeturian pitch: then put into it two congii of
the very oldelf fea-water, if you have any ; if not, two congii of fea-
water, newly taken out of the fea, boiled in to a third part of the
firft quantity. Let the tub Hand uncovered in the Sun, during the
Tiling of the Dog-flar ; and mix it very often with the wooden fpa¬
tula, till fuch time as the things you fhall have put into it diffolve in
the pitch, and incorporate with it.

But it will be proper to cover the tub in the night-time, left the
dew fall into it : then, when it fhall appear, that the fea-water, which-
you have put into it, is confumed by the Sun, you muft take care to.
carry the veffel into the houfe. Some are wont to mix a quarter

of

Chap. XXIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

S31-

of a pound of this medicament with xlviii fcxtarii of wine, and to
content themfelves with preferving it after this manner. Others
put three cyathi of it into as many Jextarii as we have above-men¬
tioned.

CHAP. XXIII.

Of Pitch which the Savoyards ufe for preferving of pitched

JV'me.

HE pitch, which the Savoyards ufe for preferving their wines.

is called barky or J'caly pitch : it is fo made as to be hard ; and

the older it is, fo much the better it is for ufe; for, having loft
all its toughnefs, it is the more eafily reduced into powder, and fifted.
Therefore this pitch muft be bruifed and lifted ; then, when the mull
has twice left off fermenting, which, for the moft part, is within the
fourth day from the time it is taken out of the vat which is under the
wine-prefs, they carefully cleanfe it from filth with their hands ; and
then put two ounces and an half of the forefaid pitch into fifty-five
fcxtarii of it, and mix it throughly with a wooden ladle : nor do
they afterwards touch it, till it ferment together ; which, neverthe-
lefs, muft not be buffered more than fourteen days, from the time
that the preferve has been put into it : for, after this number of days,
you muft prefently cleanfe your wine from all manner of filth ; and,
if any of the dregs have ftuck, either to the brim or fides of the vef-
fels, they muft be fcraped and rubbed off ; and, having put on the
covers, they muft be forthwith daubed over.

But, if you will preferve your whole vintage with this fame pitch,
fo that it may not be known, by the tafte of it, that the wine is
pitched, it will be fufficient to mix fix fcruples of the faid pitch with
forty-five fcxtarii of muft, when it has left off fermenting, and the
dregs are purged out of it, and not before ; but you muft put the
24th part of a Jextarius of toafted and bruifed l'alt into the fame
quantity of muft. Nor muft fait be put into wine of this character
only, but, if it can be done, all forts of wine whatfoever, in all
countries, ought to be falted with this very fame quantity of fait • for
this prevents the wine from becoming mufty.

Y y y 2

C II A P.

532

L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookXII.

CHAP. XXIV.

Of Nemeturian Pitch for the preferving of JVine .

Emeturian pitch is made in Liguria ; bat, that it may be made

’ fit for preferving wine, fea-water mud: be taken out of the deep
fea, at as great a didance from the (bore as can be done conveniently,
and boiled into one half of the fil'd: quantity ; and, when it is cooled
to fuch a degree, as not to burn the body when it is touched, we mix
fuch a quantity of it with the forefaid pitch, as fhall feem fufficient ■>
and we mud ftir it about carefully with a wooden fpatula, or even
with our hand, that if there be any blemifh in it, or any part of it
vitiated, it may be wafhed out. Then we muft fuffer the pitch to
link to the bottom, and, when it is fettled, drain the water from it j
afterwards we mud wadi it twice or thrice in the remaining part of
the boiled water, and work it fo long, till it become of a bright- red
fhining colour ; then, having drained the water off it, we mud let it
dand in the Sun fourteen days, that whatever moidure from the water
fhall remain in it, may be dried up. But in the night-time the veffel
mud be covered, that the dew. may not fall into if.

When we fhall have, in this manner, prepared the pitch, and have
a mind to preferve our wines therewith, when they have now twice
left off fermenting, we mud put two cyathi of the forefaid pitch into
forty-eight fextarii of mud, in this manner: We mud take two fix-
tar ii of mud out of that quantity we are going to preferve ; then,
from thefe two fextarii , we mud, by little and little, pour the mud
into the two cyathi of pitch, and work it with our hand as it were
honey and water, that it may the more eafily mix with the mud :
but, when the whole two fextarii of mud are mingled with the
pitch, and make, as it were, an unity of fubjiance , then it will be
proper to pour them into the veffel from whence we took them, and
to dir it about with a wooden ladle, that the medicament may be
throughly mixed with it.

CHAP.

Chap. XXV. Of HUSBANDRY.

533

CHAP. XXV.

Of fait Water and ftrong Brine for preferving Wines.

F Ora (much as Tome people, yea, even almoft all the Greeks alfo,
preferve their mull with l'alt- water or ftrong wine, I thought
that that part alfo of our care w7as not to be omitted. In the inland
country, whither it is not eai'y to carry falt-water, ftrong brine mull
be made for preferves after this manner.

Rain-water is by much the fitted; for this purpofe ; if not this,
then that which flows from the cleared; fpring. Therefore you mult
take care to place in the Sun, five years before, a great quantity of
either the one or the other of thele, and put it up in the very bed:
veflels you have ; then, when it is putrefied, you mud: let it Hand fo
long, till it fhall return to its former condition ; when this is done,
provide other veflels, and drain the water by little and little into them,
till you come to the dregs ; for there is always found fome thick lettle-
ment in the bottom of water, which you let ftand without ftir-
ring it.

When the water has been thus managed, it muft be boiled into one
third of the firft quantity, after the manner of rob of grapes; and,
into fifty fextarii of fweet water they put one fextarius of fait, and
a fextarius of the bed: honey : thefe muft be boiled all together, and
all filthinels purged out of them ; and, when the water is cooled, a
certain quantity of it muft be put into an amphora of muft.

But, if your land lie near the fea, the water muft be taken out of
the deep when the winds are filer*, and the fea exceeding calm ; and
it muft be boiled into a third part, after you have put, if you think
proper, fome of thofe fpices into it, which I mentioned above, that
fo the wine may have a better flavour after it is cured.. But, before
you take up the mud: out of the vat which is under the wine-prefs,
lufFumigate the veflels with rofemarv, or laurel, or myrtle, and fill
them up to the brim, that, when the wine ferments, it may purge itfelf
well ; afterwards rub the veflels with pine-apples. The wine which
you have a mind fhould be fweeter than ordinary, you muft preferve
it the day after you have taken it out of the vat ; and that which you
would have rougher, you muft preferve it the fifth day, and fo fill
up and daub the veflels. Some alfo, having fuffumigated the hogf-
heads, put the preferve in firft, and fo pour in the mud .

C H A P.

534

L. J. M. COL U M ELLA Book XIL

C FI A P. XXV L

Of Remedies for Wine that grows four.

IN whatever land the wine ufes to turn acid, you mu ft take care,
that, when you have gathered and trodden out the grapes, be¬
fore the hulks are fqueezed in the wine-preffes, you pour the mud
into, and ftrain it through the twig-balket, and put to it a tenth part
of fweet well-water, out of the fame ground, and boil it, till that
water which you have added to it be boiled away ; afterwards, when
it is cooled, pour it into veffels, and cover it, and plafter it : thus it
will keep the longer, and fuftain no damage.

It is better, if you put old water to it, which has been kept a great
many years; and it is much better, if you put no water to it at all,
and boil away the tenth part of the mud, and decant it into a cold
veffel ; and if, after it is boiled in, and grown cold, you mix an he -
mina of plafter, or calcined ftone, with feven fextarii of muft. The
reft of the muft, which you have fqueezed out of the hufks, ufe as
foon as you can, or exchange it for money.

CHAP. XXVII.

Of making fweet Wine.

YO U muft make fweet wine in this manner : Gather the grapes,
fpread them in the Sun during the fpace of three days ; on the
fourth day, at noon, tread out the grapes ; when they are warm,
take up muft of the firft running, that is, the muft which flows into
the muft-vat, before it is fqueezed out of the grapes with the prefs ;
when it has left off fermenting, put well-bruifed flower-de-luce, but
not above an ounce-wreight, into fifty fextarii of it ; ftrain it off its
dregs, and pour it into other veffels. This wine will be fweet, firm,
holding, and wholfome for the body.

CHAP.

Chap. XXVIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

535

CHAP. XXVIII.

Of other wholfome Sorts of Preferves.

OTHER kinds of medicaments, very proper for preferving wines,
and keeping them very firm, make after this manner : Bruife
the very whiteft Iris, or flower-de-luce, in a mortar ; fleep fenugreek
in old wine; then expofe it in the Sun, or in an oven, that it may
grow dry ; then pound it very fmall : alfo mix bruifed odoriferous
things together into one mafs, that is, fifted flower-de-luce, about the
quantity of nine ounces, of fenugreek in weight nine ounces, of fweet
rufli five ounces ; then, into each hogfliead or veflel, which may con¬
tain feven amphora , put, of this medicament, the weight of one ounce
and eight fcruples ; of plafter, made of calcined marble, three hemina
into each, when the mud is the produce of marfliy places ; but one
J'extarius only, when it is of new vineyards : when the muft is the
produce of old vineyards, and dry places, put one hemina into each.

The third day, after you have trodden out the grapes , pour the
preferve into the muft ; but, before you put the preferve into it, pour
a fmall quantity of the muft from one veflel into another, left, when
-you put the preferve into it, it ferment with the medicament, and
run over : but the plafter, or the calcined Garble, and the medicament,
being thus prepared, mix throughly, in a pan, as much of them as
fhall be neceflary for each wine- veflel, and dilute that medicament
with muft, and put them into the veflels, and mix them throughly ;
and, when the muft has left off" fermenting, fill it up prefently, and
daub it over.

When you preferve any wine whatfoever, do not prefently pour it
into other veflels, but let it reft in the wine-veflels ; afterwards, when
you have a mind to pour it out of the barrels or hogftieads into other
veflels, having taken it as clear off the dregs as you pofiibly can, in
the Spring, when the role is blofl'oming, transfer it into veflels that
are well- pitched, and exceeding clean. If you are defirous to keep it
till it be old, put a j'extarius of the very beft wine, or three jextarii
of frefti generous dregs, into a firkin, containing two urns ; or, if you.
have frelh veflels, out of which wine has been taken, pour it into
them: if you do any one of thefe things, the wine will be much
better and firmer. Alfo, if you put good odours into it, you will
hinder it from contracting any bad fmell or tafte whatfoever ; for.

4. there.:

536 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

there is nothing that attracts to itfelf the fmell of other things more
quickly than wine.

CHAP. XXIX.

After what Manner Muft may be kept always fweet , as if it

were new.

I""* H A T mud may continue always fweet, as if it were new,
manage it thus : Before the hufks of the grapes are put under
the prefs, take the very freflied mud out of the wine-fat, and put it
into a new amphora , and daub it, and pitch it carefully, that no water
at all may enter into it ; then fink the whole amphora into a pond of
cold and fweet water, fo that no part of it may dand out of it j then,
after forty days, take it out of the pond : thus it will continue fweet
for a whole year.

CHAP. XXX.

Of the bejl IV ay of curing Wine , and of Remedies for Wine

that is upon the Decay.

FROM that time, when you (hall have fird put the covers upon
the wine-veflels, till the vernal Equinox, it is fufficient to cure
the wine once in xxxvi days, and after the vernal Equinox twice ; or,
if the wine begins to flower, you mud cure it oftener, led its flower
fall to the bottom, and vitiate the tade of the wine : the greater the
heat is, the oftener is it proper that wine be nouriflied, cooled, re-
frefhed, and vent given to it; for, as long as it is kept abundantly
cold, fo long will it continue in good condition.

The brims and chops of the vefl'els mud always be rubbed with
pine-apples, as often as the wine is cured : if your wines be rougher,
or not fo good as you could wifii, which may be occafioned by the
bad quality of the ground, or by the weather, take the dregs of good
wine, and make it into cakes, and dry them in the Sun, and toad
them at the fire ; afterwards bruife them fmall, and rub a quarter of
a pound of them into each amphora , and plafier it, and the wine will
become good.

C H A P.

537

Chap. XXXIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

. • i - : h

CHAP. XXXI.

Of Remedies ) in cafe any living Creature fall into the Muft ,

and perifi in it,

IF any living creature fliall fall into the muft, and perifli in it, as
a ferpent, or a moufe, or a rat ; left it make the wine of a bad
fmell, if the body be found, let it be burnt in the fire, and the afties
of it poured in cold into the veflel into which it did fall ; and let it
be throughly mixed with a wooden ladle : this thing will be a remedy
for it.

CHAP. XXXII.

x _ ; t ' . i L ; -3 * s .-..i i » • - i

Of Horehound-wine.

MANY think, that horehound-wine is ufeful for all difeafes of
the bowels, and efpecially for the cough. When you make
your vintage, gather tender ftalks of horehound, chiefly from uncul¬
tivated and lean places, and dry them in the Sun ; then make them
into bundles, and bind them with a palm- or ruth-rope, and put them
into a hogfhead, fo that the band may be on the outfide : put vin
ponnds of horehound into cc Jextarii of fweet muft, that fo it may
continue in it, till the muft leave off fermenting ; afterwards take out
the horehound, and, when the wine is well cleanfed, daub it care¬
fully. :

CHAP. XXXIII.

Of Squil-wine.

YOU muft in this manner prepare and preferve Squil-wine, for
promoting digeftion, and repairing the bodyj and alfo for an
old cough, and for the benefit of the ftomach. Forty days before
you defign to gather grapes for wine, firft gather the Squil, and cut it
exceeding fmall, like the root of a radilh, and hang up the fmall

Z z z cuttings

S38 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

cuttings of it in the fhade, that they may dry ; then, when they are
dry, put a pound-weight of the dry fquil into xlviii fextarii of Ami -
nean muft, and let it remain in it for xxx days ; afterwards take it
out, and, after you have feparated the wine from the dregs, put it
up into two amphors. Others write, that a pound-weight and a
quarter ^f dry fquil muft be put into forty-eight fextarii of muft:
and this very thing I do not difapprove.

CHAP. XXXIV.

Of Squil-vinegar.

THEY who have a mind to make Squil-vinegar for fauce, put
this very weight of fquil, which I have mentioned above, into
two urns of vinegar, and fuffer it to remain forty days in it : into
three amphora of muft you put a congius of fharp vinegar, or two
congii , if it is not fharp ; and in a pot, which contains four atnphora ,
you boil it in one fourth part j or, if the muft is not fweet, one third
part j let it be fcummed. But let the muft be of the middle fort,
and very clear.

CHAP. XXXV.

How you muft make Wormwood-wine , Hyffop-winey Southern¬
wood- and other Sorts of Wine.

YOU muft make up and prepare wormwood- hyftop- fouthern-
wood- thyme- pennyroyal- and fennel-wines, after this manner:
Boil one pound-weight of Pontic wormwood, with four fextarii of
muft, till one fourth part of it be boiled away ; what remains of it,
put it cold into an urn of Aminean muft : do the fame with the other
things above-mentioned. Alfo three pounds of dry pennyroyal may
be boiled with a congius of muft, till a third part of it be boiled away j
and, when the liquor is cooled, and the pennyroyal taken out of it,
it may be put into an urna of muft ; and this is very proper to be
given presently, to fuch as are affedted with the cough during the
Winter * and this is called pennyroyal-wine.

CHAP.

Chap. XXXVIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

539

CHAP. XXXVI.

Of Mujl of the laft Pr effing^ or fqueezed Mujl .

SQueezed mull is that which is prefled out, when the mafs of the
hulks of the grapes is cut after the firfl: prefling : You (hall throw
that mult into a new veflel, and fill it up to the brim ; then you (hall
put to it fmall branches of dry rofemary, tied together with flax, and
fuffer them to ferment together for feven days ; then you (hall take
out the bundle of fmall branches, and, when the wine is carefully
purged, plafter it up: but it will be fuflicient to put a pound and an
half of rofemary into two urns of mull. After two months you may
ufe this wine for a remedy.

CHAP. XXXVII.

To make Wine like to Greek Wine,

%

GAther the very ripeft early-ripe grapes, and dry them three days
in the Sun ; tread them out the fourth day, and throw the mull,
which has none of the laft prefling in it, into a hoglhead, and take
diligent care, that, when it has left off fermenting, the dregs be purged
out of it ; then the fifth day, when you have purged the mull, put
two fextarii of toafled and lifted fait j or, which is the leafi: quantity,
on z fextarius to xlix fextarii of mult. Some alfo mix a fextarius of
rob of grapes, (mull fodden in to one third of the firft quantity) with
it. Some alfo add two fextarii to it, if they think, that the wine is
not of a very firm and holding kind.

CHAP. XXXVIII.

How you may 7nake Myrtle-wine,

MAKE myrtle- wine for gripings of the guts, and a loofenefs, and
for a weak flomach, after this manner : There are two kinds
of myrtle-trees, of which the one is black, and the other white j the

Z z z 2 - berries

540 L; J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

berries of the black kind are gathered when they are ripe, and their
feeds taken out ; and the berries themfelves, without the feeds, are
dried in the Sun, and laid up in a dry place, in an earthen jar.

Then, in the time of the vintage, when the Sun is hot, they ga¬
ther Amine an grapes, that are throughly ripe, off old vines that are
fupported with trees ; or, if they have no fuch vines, they gather
them from the oldeft vineyards they have ; and the mud: that they
have from thefe they put into a wine-veffel ; and prefently, the firft
day, before it ferments, they carefully bruife the myrtle-berries, that
they have laid up ; and they weigh as many pounds of them, after
they are bruifed, as they defign to prepare amphors of wine : then we
take a little muft out of that veffel which we are going to put the
berries into, and fprinkle it upon that which we have bruifed and
weighed, as it were, upon meal. Afterwards we make up feveral
fmall maffes of it, and fo let them down by the fides of the veffel into
the muft, left one of the lumps fhould fall upon the other.

Then, when the muft has twice left off fermenting, and has been
twice cured, they bruife again the fame quantity of berries, and in
the fame manner as I faid above : but they do not make them into
fmall maffes or lumps, as before ; but they take muft out of the fame
veffel, and put it into a pan, and mix it throughly with the forefaid
quantity of bruifed berries, fo as it may be like thick broth; and,
when it is throughly mixed, they pour it all together into the fame
wine-veffel,' and ftir it throughly with -a wooden flice. ' Then, niiie
days after they have done this, they purge the wine, and rub the vef¬
fel with fmall brulhes of dry myrtle, and put the cover upon it, that
nothing may fall into it : this being done, after the feventh day they
purify the wine a fecond tiriie, .and pour it into firkins .that are well-
pitched, and have a good ftnelL But you muft take care, when you
pour it into veffels, that you pour it into them clear, and without
dregs. . - ; :■ :

Another kind of myrtle-wine mingle after this manner : Boil Attic
honey thrice, and farm it as often ; or, if-yotr have no Attic honey,
choofe the very beft you can. find, and lcum it four or five times ; for
the worfe it is, the more filth it has- in it: then, when the honey is
cooled again, gather the very ripeft berries of the white kind of myrtle,
and break them, fo as not to bruife with them the feeds that are
within them ; and, having prefently fhut them up in a wooden bafket,
prefs the juice out of them, and mix about fix f extar ii of their juice
with one fextarius of boiled honey; and, after you have poured it into
a little ftone bottle, plafter it over. But this ought to be done in the

month

Chap. XXXIX. O/HUSBANDRY. 54.

month of December , at which time commonly the feeds of the myrtle
are ripe : and you muft obferve, that the weather be fair and clear
feven days before the berries are gathered, if it can be done; but, if
not, that it be fair weather not lefs than three days before, or, at leaft,
that it has not rained ; and you muft take care, that they be not ga¬
thered with the dew upon them.

Many gather the black or white myrtle-berry after it is fully ripe ;
and, having expofed it for two hours, and dried it a little in the fhade,
they bruife it l'o, that the feeds it contains may, as much as poftible,
remain intire ; then they fqueeze the juice out of what they have
bruifed, through a flaxen frail, and, having ftrained it very clear
through a rufh-ftrainer, they put it up in fmall ftone bottles, well-
pitched, without mixing honey, or any other thing with it. This
liquor is not fo durable ; but, as long as it keeps without fpoiling, it
is of greater benefit to health, than that other fort of compolition
made with the juice of myrtle-berries.

There are lome, who, having fqueezed out this very juice, if they
have a larger quantity of it, boil it in to a third part, and, when it is
cooled, put it up in well-pitched fmall ftone bottles. When it is pre¬
pared after this manner, it keeps longer; but that which you fhall not
have boiled, may keep found, without fuftaining any hurt, for two
years, provided you make it very clean, and with great care.

CHAP. XXXIX.

After what Manner Wine may he made of Grapes dried in

the Sun.

AGO diredts the bell: raifin-wine to be made in this manner, as I
myfelf alfo have made it ; viz. To gather the early- ripe grapes
when they are very ripe, and to rejedt fuch of the berries as are
withered or fpoiled ; to fallen in the ground forks or ftakes, at the
diftance of four feet the one from the other, for fupporting reeds, and
to couple them together with poles ; then to put reeds upon them,
and to fpread the grapes in the Sun, and cover them during the night,
left they be wet with the dew ; then, when they are throughly dried,
to pluck off the berries, and throw them into a barrel or hoglhead,
and to put the very beft muft to them, till all the grapes are covered
with it : when the grapes fhall have drunk it up, and filled them-

lelves

542 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

ielves with it, to put them all together into a frail the 'fixth day, and
prefs them in the wine-prefs, and take the dried raifin-wine from
them ; afterwards to tread the hufks, after the very frefheft muft,
which has been made of other grapes, which you have expofed to the
Sun for the fpace of three days, has been put to them ; then, to mix
all together, and put the whole kneaded mafs of bruifed grapes under
the prefs, and prefently to put up this fecondary raifin-wine, in
plaflered vefiels, that it may not become too rough : then, after
twenty or thirty days, when it has left off fermenting, to pour it very
clear into other vefiels ; and prefently to plafter the covers, and cover
them with fkin.

If you would make raifin-wine of the Apian grape, gather the
Apian grape found and intire; purge them of fuch grains as are rotten
and fpoiled, and put them apart by themfelves; afterwards hang them
up on poles, and order it fo, that the poles may be always in the Sun.
After the berries are fhrivelled enough, pull them off, and throw
them into a tub without the ftalks, and tread them well with your
feet. When you have made one floor or fiery of them, fprinkle old
wine upon it; afterwards tread down another upon it, and alfo fprinkle
wine on it. In the fame manner tread a third flory, and continue to
pour wine upon them, fo that it may fwim above them, and let them
alone for five days ; afterwards tread them with your feet, and prefs
the grapes in a new wicker-bafket.

Some prepare old rain-water for this ufe, and boil it in one third ;
then, having dried the grapes in the Sun, in the manner above defcri-
bed, they put boiled water inflead of wine, and manage the reft after
the fame manner. This wine, where there is plenty of wood, is
made with very little charge, and comes -very cheap ; and, when it
is ufed, it is even fweeter than the other forts of raifin-wine above-
mentioned.

CHAP. XL.

How the bejl Jmall thin Wine may be made.

THE beft fmall thin wine is made in this manner : Confider how
many firkins the tenth part of the quantity of wine, which
you have made in one day, may amount to; and put as many firkins
of frefh water to the hufks of the grapes ; but let them be fuch as
wine of one day old has been prefled from : pour likewife, into the

fame

Chap. XLI. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 543

fame place, the fcum of the muft that has been fodden in to one
third, or one half of the firft quantity for making rob of grapes, and
the dregs out of the wine-vat, and mix them throughly together ; and
let this mixed mafs foak for one night : the day after tread it with your
feet ; and, when it is thus throughly mixed, put it under the wine-
prefs ; then put up that which flows from it, either in hoglheads or
ampbors-y and, when it has left off fermenting, flop them up : but it is
more commodioufly kept in amphors. M. Columella made this felf-
fame thin fmall wine of old water • and fometimes he kept it above
two years without fpoiling.

CHAP. XLI.

How to make the be ft Honey-wine (i).

MAKE the beft honey- wine thus : Take up prefen tly, out of
the wine-vat, the purefl muft which diftils from the grapes,
before they are too much trodden : but make it of the muft of grapes
of that kind of vine which grows upon trees, and which you have
gathered in dry weather. Into an urn of muft you fhall put ten
pound- weight of the beft honey j and, having mixed it carefully with
the muft, you fhall put it up in a ftone bottle, and immediately plafter
it, and order it to be laid up in a loft : if you have a mind to make a
greater quantity of it, you fhall put honey to it in the proportion
above-mentioned. After thirty-two days you muft open the bottle j
and, after you have (trained the muft, and put it very clear into an¬
other veflfel, plafter it, and fet it into an oven.

A preferve, or fyrup of quinces, is made in this manner : They
boil an urn of Aminean muft of the grapes of vines, fupported by
trees, in a new earthen or tin pot, and twenty large quince-apples
well cleanfed, and found fweet pomegranates, which they call Car¬
thaginian apples, and forb-apples not throughly ripe, divided, and
their feeds taken out, which may be of about the quantity of three
fextarii : thefe are fo boiled, that all the apples may diflolve in the

(1) The title of this chapter, in all the editions I have Teen, is by no means agreeable
to the defign of it ; which, among other things, is to direct how to make honey-wine,
but fays nothing of making what they call tnuftum /ixivum, by which is underftood that
muft which drops from the grapes of its own accord, before they arc preffed : therefore I
have made the firft words of the chapter the title of it.

3 muft •,

544. L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

muft ; and let there be a boy to ftir and mix the apples throughly
with a wooden flice or reed, that they may not be burnt- to. Then,
after they are boiled, fo that there is not much of the liquor remain¬
ing, they fet them to cool, and ft rain them ; and fuch of them as
fublide in the ftrainer, they carefully bruife and fmooth, and boil a
fecond time in their own juice, upon a flow fire of charcoal, that they
may not burn-to, till the liquor that fettles to the bottom appears like
dregs. Neverthelefs, before the medicament is taken off the fire, they
add to it, over-and-above all, three hemiticz of rhus Syriacus , bruifed
and fifted ; and mix it throughly with a wooden fpatula, that it may
incorporate with the reft : then, when the medicament is cooled,
they put it into a new-pitched earthen veflel ; and, when they have
plaftered it, they hang it up high, that it may not contradt a palenefs.

CHAP. XLII.

Of preferring Cheefe.

WE muft preferve cheefe in this manner : Cut large pieces of dry
ewe-milk-cheefe of the laft year, and flow them in a pitched
veflel ; then fill it with the beft kind of muft, fo that it may cover
the cheefe ; and let there be a larger quantity of liquor, than of cheefe ;
for the cheefe drinks it up, and fpoils, unlefs the muft always fwim
above it. But, when you have filled the veflel, you muft plafter it
immediately j then after twenty days you may open it, and ule it with
any kind of fauce or feafoning you pleafe ; and by itfelf alfo it is not
unpleafant.

CHAP. XLIII.

After what Manner potted Grapes ?nay be put up and kept .

WHEN you have cut off from the vine the Bumaji grapes, or
fuch as have hard and thick fkins, or fuch as are of a purple
colour, pitch their pedicles or ftalks immediately with hard pitch j
then fill a fmall new earthen pan with the very drieft fifted chaff, that
it may be without any duft in it j and fo place the clufters of grapes

upon

Chap. XLIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 545

upon it -r thehncpter it with ahother earthen pan, and daub it all round
with clay mixt with flraw; and fo, after you have flowed the pans in
a very dry loft, cover them ill over with dry chaff.

And all forts of grapes whatfoever may be kept without fpoiling, if
they be plucked off the vine in the decreafe of the Moon, and in fair
weather, after the fourth hour of thi day, and when they have
already had the Sun for forhe time upon them, and have no dew upon
them. But. let a fire' be made in the next large crofs-way, that the
pitch may be boiling hot, into which the flalks of the clutters may bq
prelently dipt ; throw a firkin of the rob of grapes, or mufl boiled in to
a third part of the firfl quantity, into a well-pitched barrel j then
thru ft in crofs-pieces of wood very dofe, fo as they may not touch
the fodden muft ; then place new earthen dithes upon them, and in
them fo difpofe the bunches of grapes, that one of them may not
touch the other ; then put covers upon the difhes, and daub them
over. Then build a fecond ftory after the fame manner, and a third,
and as long as the bignefs of the barrel will allow, and flow the
bunches after the fame manner ; then having pitched the cover of the
barrel, anoint it thoroughly with fodden muflj and, when you have
put it on, flop it up dole with allies.

Some, after they have put the fodden mufl into the barrel, con¬
tent thcmfelvee with thrufling in tranfverfe pieces of wood very clofe,
and hanging the bunches of grapes upon them, fo as not to touch the
fodden muft 5 then having put on the cover, daub it all over. Others,
after they have gathered the grapes, in the manner as I laid above,
dry new fmall barrels in the Sun, without any pitch ; then, when
they have cooled them in the fhade, put barley-bran into them, and
place the bunches of grapes fo upon it, as one of them may not prels
upon another ; then they pour in the fame kind of bran upon them,
and place another row of bunches in the fame manner ; and this they
do, till they fill the barrel with bran and bunches of grapes by turns ;
and, when they have put the cover upon it, they daub it over, and
lay up the grapes in a very dry and cold loft.

Some, after the fame method, preferve green grapes with dry
poplar- or evergreen-oak-faw-dufl. Others cover over, with dry par¬
get-flower, the bunches of grapes which they have plucked off the
vines before they are too ripe. Others, when they have gathered the
grapes, if there are any of the grapes fpoiled, cut them off with a
.pair of fheers, and fo hang them up in a barn, where there is wheat
placed under them. But this method makes the berries to fhrivel, and
become wrinkly, and almofl as fweet as raifins dried in the Sun.

4 A Marcus

c46 L.J.M. COLUMELLA Book XII,

Marcus Columella , my uncle, ordered broad veffels, after the man¬
ner of difhes, to be made of that fort of clay wherewith they make
the amphora , and to be pitched very thick, both on the infide and out-
fide ; and after he had prepared them, he ordered the purple-coloured,
and the bumaft grapes, and the Numifian , and the thick and hard-
fkinned grapes to be gathered, and their ftalks, without delay, to be
dipt into boiling pitch, and every kind to be put up feparately by it-
felf, fo that the bunches might not touch each other : after this he
ordered covers to be put upon them, and that they fhould be daubed
with thick platter ; then, after all, to be pitched with hard pitch,
which was melted upon the fire, fo that no moifture whatsoever
might be able to pafs through ; then he ordered the whole veffels to
be funk in fpring- or cittern-water, with weights laid upon them, and
that no part of them fhould be fuffered to appear above the water.
Thus grapes are exceedingly well preferved : but, when they are taken
out of the water, unlefs they be eaten that very day, they grow four.

Nev^rthelefs, there is nothing furer than to make earthen veffels,
which may contain one Angle bunch of grapes each,, with room fuffi-
cient : thefe veffels ought to have four handles, wherewith they may
hang tied to the vine ; alfo their covers ought to be fo formed, as to
be divided in the middle, that fo, when the veffels are hung up, and
have received a bunch of grapes into each of them,, the two parts or
divifions of the covers, being applied on both fides, may join together,
and cover the bunches of grapes : and both the veffels and their covers
ought to be carefully pitched, both on the infide and on the outfide j
then, when they have covered the grapes, they ought to be covered
over with abundance of clay mixed with ftraw : but the clutters
of grapes, which hang upon the mother vine, ought to be put up into
the pipkins, fo as no parts of them may touch the veffels.

But the time when they ought to be fhut up in the vafes, is com¬
monly when the weather is as yet very dry and fair, and the berries
or grains of the clutters plump, and of divers colours. This, upon
the whole, we ftridtly injoin, above all things, that apples and grapes
be not laid up together in the fame place, nor in any place near to
one another, from whence the fmell of the apples may reach them :
for, with this kind of fteam, the grains of the clutters quickly fpoil
and rot. Neverthelefs, the methods of keeping and preferving apples
or grapes, which we have mentioned, are not all proper for all re¬
gions; but fome of them agree with one, and fome with another,
according to the nature of the places, and the qualities of the grapes.

The

Chap. XLIII. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 547

The antlents, for the moft part, put up in veffels the Scircitulany
the Venuculan , and the larger Aminean and Galilean grapes, and fuch
as were of large, and hard, and thin berries : but now, in and about
the city, the Numijian grapes are moft approved for this ufe ; they
gather the choiceft of thefe when they are moderately ripe, in fair
weather, after the Sun has removed the dew, about the fourth or fifth
hour of the day, provided the Moon be decreafing, and under the
earth ; then they place them upon hurdles, fo that the bunches may
not bruife one another ; then, afterwards, they bring them into the
houfe, and, with a pair of Iheers, cut off the dry, withered, and
rotten berries ; and, after they are cooled a little in the fhade, they
put three or four bunches of them into the pots, according to the
largenefs of the veffels, and flop up the covers carefully with pitch,
that they may not let the moifture pafs through : then they take out
the mafs of the hulks of the grapes, which have been well fqueezed
in the wine-prefs, and, having feparated the ftalks pretty well from
them, and loofened the bruifed mafs of the hulks, they lpread them
in the bottom of the barrel, and flow the pots therein with their
mouths downward, at fuch a diftance from each other, that the hulks
and grape-ftones may be trodden in between them; and when, with
thefe preffed clofe together, they have made the firft ftory ; they ltow
other pots in the fame manner, and fill up the fecond ftory, then,
after the fame manner, the barrel is filled up with rows or ftories of
pots, one above another, which are made fall with the hulks and
grape-ftones, trodden in clofe about them ; then they prefently fill up
the veffel to the brim with hulks, and prefs them clofe together j and,
after they have put the cover upon it, they immediately daub the barrel
with alhes, tempered after the manner of plafter. Neverthelefs, it is
neceffary to caution him, who is about to buy thefe veffels, that he
do not buy the pots which imbibe the moifture, or are not well baked ;
for both thefe things fpoil the grapes, by letting the water pafs through.
Moreover, when the pots are brought out for ufe, a whole row or
ftory of them muft be pulled down at once ; for the hulks and grape-
ftones, which are preffed clofe together, if they are once moved,
quickly grow four, and fpoil the grapes.

4 A 2

CHAP.

543 L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookXII.

C H A. P. XLIV.

After what Manner P o?negranates may he preferved.

AFTER the vintage follow the compofitions of autumnal things,
which of them fe Ives, very much inlarge the care and bufinefs
of the Bailiffs Wife : nor am I ignorant, that there are many things,
which Cairn Matius has moft carefully treated of, which I have not
brought together, and put into this book. For what he propofed to
himfelf was, to give dire&ions about furnifhing, preparing, and fet-
ting in order plentiful tables, and making magnificent entertainments
in town. He publifhed three books : the one he called the Cook , the
other the Fijhmonger , and the third the Oilman. Neverthelefs, we
are abundantly fatisfied with fuch things, as may fall to the fhare of
rural fimplicity, and are eafily attainable, and without any great ex¬
pence j as, in the firft place, all forts of apples.

And, that I may begin with the pomegranates, fome twift their
pedicles or ftalks as they grow upon the tree, that the apples may not
burft with the rains,- or, chapping, utterly perilh ; and they tie the apples
to the larger branches, that they may remain unmoved : then they
inclofe the tree with nets made of Spanifo broom, left the apples be
torn, either by crows, or rooks; or other fowls. Some fit fmall earthen
pots to the apples, as they hang on the trees ; and, having daubed
them over with clay mixed with ftraw, fuffer them to ftick to the
trees : others wrap them up, oiVe , by one, "in hay or ftraw ; and, more¬
over,. daub them over very thick with clay mixed with ftraw, and fo
bind them to the larger branches, that they may not, as I faid-, be
moved with the wind.

But all thefe things ought to be carefully done, as I faid, in fair
weather, and when there is no dew upon them; which, neverthe¬
lefs, ought either not to be done at all, becaufe the fmall trees are
Jiurt thereby ; or, at leaft, it ought not to be put in pratfticec every
year, especially confidering, that we may keep the apples very fafely,
even when they are pulled off the trees, without fuftaining any da¬
mage : for, even within-doors, you may make fmall trenches of three
feet dimenfion, in a very dry place ; and, after you have put a fmall
quantity of very fmall earth into them, you faften fmall branches
of the elder-tree therein ; then, when the weather is fair, you gather
the pomegranates with their pedicles, and infert them into the elder-
2 tree-

Chap. XLIV. Of HUSBANDRY. 549

tree-branches [for the elder- tree has its pith fo loofe and open, that
it may eafily receive the pedicles of the apples]. But you muft take
care, that the apples be not lefs than four inches diftant from the
earth, and that they do not touch one another. Then you put a cover
upon the ditch you have made, and daub it all round with clay mixed
with draw, and heap the earth upon it, that was digged out of it.

This fame thing may be done in a tub or barrel, if any one fhall
have a mind to fill a veflel half-full, either with fmall, loofe earth,
or, which fome like better, with river-fand j and to do all the other
things after the fame manner. Indeed, Mago the Carthaginian orders
fea-water to be made exceeding hot, and the pomegranates to be tied
with flax or ruflies, and let down into it for a little while, till they
be dilcoloured ; and, after they are taken out, to be dried three day&.
in the Sun, and afterwards to be hung up in a cold place ; and, when
there is occafion to ufe them, to deep them in cold frefli water one
night, and the day following, till the hour when they are to be ufed.
But the fame author alfo directs us, to daub the frefh apples all over,
very thick, with well-wrought potters-clay ; and, when the clay
is dried, to hang them up in a cold place; afterwards, when there is
occafion to ufe them, to put them into water, and foften the clay!
This method preferves -the apple as freflv, as if it were newly ga¬
thered.

The fame Mago commands us to fpread poplar- or evergreen-oak-
faw-dufl, in the bottom of a new earthen pot, and to flow the apples
fo, that the faw-dufl: may be trodden in between them; then, after
the firft ftory is finilhed, to fpread faw-dufl a fecond time, and fto\V
the apples after the fame manner, till the pot be filled •, and, whert^it
is full, to put a cover upon it, and daub it over carefully with thick,
clay. I

But all forts of apples whatfoever, that are laid up in order to' be
kept for a long time, ought to be gathered with their pedicleS, and
even with their fmall branches alio, provided it can bd done without
any injury to the tree ; for this contributes very much towards' pre-
ferving them for a longtime.' Many pull them dfF;the tree's Mviths
their fmall boughs; and, when they have carefully covered- thd5 apples
over with potters-clay, dry them in the Sun : then, if the potters-
clay chap in any place, they daub it over with common day ; a ndj
when they are dried, hang them up- in a cdld plac-d,.

CHAP;

55°

Book XII.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA

CHAP. XLV.

How Globe-apples , or Pome- par adifes^ Honey-apples , Scflian
Sipples > and other Kinds , be preferved.

MANY preferve and keep quinces in pits, or trenches,- or in
barrels, in the fame manner as they do pomegranates. Some
bind them up in fig-tree-leaves ; then they knead potters-clay with lees
of oil, and daub the apples with it; and, after they are dry, lay them
up in a loft, in a cold and dry place. Others put up thefe fame apples
into pans, and cover them all over with dry parget, fo that they may
not touch one another.

Neverthelefs, we have not experienced any thing furer or better,
than, in fair weather, and in the wane of the Moon, to gather the
ripefl quinces, that are found, and without any blemifh ; and after
the down, which is upon the apples, is wiped off, to put them up
lightly, and very loofe, that they may not be bruifed the one againlt
the other, in a new flone bottle with a very wide mouth ; then, when
they are flowed up to the neck of the bottle, to thrufl them down
clofe to one another, with willow-twigs laid crofs them in fuch a
manner, as gently to comprefs the apples, and not fuffer them to be
lifted up with the liquor, when it is poured in upon them j then to
fill the veffel to the brim with the belt and the moll liquid honey,
fo that the apples may be intirely covered with it. This method not
only preferves the apples themfelves fafely, but alfo affords a liquor
of an hoi>ey-wine tafte, which fometimes may be given, without any
hurt, to fuch as are fick of a fever j and it is called fyrup of quinces
and honey ,

But you mud take care, that the apples, which you would preferve
with honey, be not gathered, and put up, before they are ripe ; be-
caufe, if they be gathered green, they grow fo hard, that they are
of no ufe. But that which many do, viz. dividing them with an
ivory knife, and taking out the feeds, becaufe they think they fpoil
the apple, is intirely fuperfluous : but the method which I have now
taught, is, indeed, fo fure, that, altho’ there even be a little worm in
them, yet the apples fpoil no further, after they have received the
forefaid liquor j for, fuch is the nature of honey, that it puts a flop
to any blemifh or corruption, and fuffers them not to fpread any fur-
c . ther}

Chap. XL VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 55i

ther ; for which reafon, it preferves alfo a dead human body found
and intire for very many years.

Other kinds of apples therefore, fuch as the orbicular , or pome-
paradifes, or Se/lian , Matian , and honey-apples, may be fafely kept
and preferved in this liquor ; but becaufe, preferred after this man¬
ner, they feem to grow fweeter in the honey, and not to retain their
own natural tafte, fmall chefts of beech, or of lime-tree alfo, fuch as
Senators or Judges robes are laid up in, but fomewhat larger, ought
to be prepared for this purpofe, and placed in a very cold loft, and
in a very dry place, where neither fmoak, nor noifom fmell, may
come; then, having fpread the foremen tioned faw-duft under them,
the apples ought to be fo ranged, that their fleurets (i) may look up¬
wards, and their pedicles or ftalks downwards, after the fame manner
as they grew upon the tree, and fo as not to touch one another.

Alfo particular care muft be taken, that each kind be put up fepa-
rately in their own little chefts ; for, when different kinds, arer fhut
up together, they difagree one with another, and are more fpeedily cor¬
rupted and fpoiled : for which reafon alfo the wine of fuch vineyards, as
are planted with different forts of plants, is not fo firm, as if you
fhould put up pure unmixed Aminean , or Apian , or even dreggy wine
by itfelf. But when the apples, as I faid before,, are thus carefully
packed up, let them be covered with the lids of the chefts, and let
the lids be daubed all over with clay mixed with ftraw, that the air
may not be able to get in. And thefe very apples fome people keep
very fafely, as they do other forts of apples, as we faid above, by
putting poplar-faw-duft, and others alfo fir-faw-duft between them ;
neverthelefs, thefe apples ought to be gathered, not ripe, but very
bitter.

CHAP. XL VI.

Of Pickling of Elecampane .

THE pickling of Elecampane (hall be performed in this manner :

After you have digged up the root of it out of the earth, in
the month of OBober , when it is come to its greateft maturity, wipe

(i) F lofcuH, fleurets: that part of the apple, oppofite to the pedicle, is called flofculut ,
it being the place where the bloflom was. It is fotnetimes called umbil'nus , the navel
of the apple.

Oil

552 L. J. M. COL U M E I, L A Book 'XU.

off, with a coarfe rough lincrn cloth., or even with a hair-cloth.,
whatever fand (hall ffick to it ; then ferape it (lightly with a very
lhai*p knife ; and where the ffnaM root is fulleft, in proportion to ■ its
thicknels cleave it into two or more parts of a finger’s length; then
boil them moderately with vinegar, in a'brafs pot, fo that the dices may
not be burnt- to : after ail this let them be dried three days in the (hade,
and fo put up into a pitched jar ; and wine, made of railins dried in the
Sun, or muff boiled into -a third part of its firft quantity, added to
them, till it lwim above them ; and, having put a fluffing of favory,
or wild marjoram, upon. them, let the veflel be (hut up, and covered
jwith leather.

There is another way of pickling Elecampane : When you have
feraped the roots of it, cut them into flices, as above, and dry them
in the (hade for the fpace of three, or even four days ; then, when
they are dried, having put wild marjoram among them, throw them
into veflels without any pitch ; and, having alfo put wild marjoram
upon them, with fix parts of vinegar, let one part of muff, lodden
into one half of its firft quantity, be mixed with an hemina of toafted
fait, that the flices may be foaked in this liquor, till they have very
little of a bitterifh tafte : afterwards, being taken out, let them be dried
a fecond time, for the fpace of five days, in the (hade ; then pour toge¬
ther, into a pot, the fediment of dreggy wine, and of honey-wine alfo,
if you have it, and the fourth part of both thefe of good muff fodden
into a third part ; and, when it has boiled, put the flices of Elecam¬
pane to it, and remove it prefently from the fire, and ftir them
throughly with a wooden fpatula, till they grow perfectly cold ; after
which pour them into a pitched jar, cover them with its lids, and
then put a cover of leather upon it.

• There is a third way to pickle the fame Elecampane : When you
have carefully feraped the fmall roofs, cut them into fmall pieces, and
ileep them in ftrong brine, till they lofe their bitternefs j then, having
poured out the brine, bruife the very bed and ripeft fervice-apples,
after you have taken out the feed, and mix them with the Elecam¬
pane ; then add to it either wine made of raifins dried in the Sun, or the
very bed; muff fodden into one third, and (top up the veflel. Some,
after they have pickled the Elecampane, and foaked it in ftrong brine,
dry it, and mix it with bruifed quinces, which they have boiled be¬
fore in honey, or in muff fodden into one third ; and fo pour raifin-
wine, or. muff fodden in to one third, upon them ; and, when they
have put the lid upon the veflel, cover it with leather.

CHAP.

Chap. XLVII.

Of HUSBANDRY.

553

CHAP. XLVII.

Of pickling of Olives.

IN the months of September or Offober , while it is yet vintage,
bruife the bitter Paufian olive ; and, having fteeped it a little in
warm water, lqueeze it ; and, after you have mixed it with a mode¬
rate quantity of toafted fait, put it up in a jar with the feeds of fennel,
and of the maftich-tree, and pour the very frefheft muft into it; then
put a fmall bundle of green fennel upon them, and prefs it down into
the liquor, that the olives may be prefled down, and the liquor ap¬
pear above them : having thus managed your olives, you may ufe them
the third day.

When you bruife the white Paufian, or the large and round, or
the long jhuttle-olive, or the royal olive ; firft plunge each of them
into cold ftrong brine, that they may not lofe their colour ; and,
when you have l'uch a quantity of any of them ready as may be fuffi-
cient to fill a jar, fpread a bundle of dry fennel in the bottom of it ;
then take care to have, in a little pot, the feeds of green fennel, and
of the maftich-tree, ftript off their ftalks, and cleanfed ; then take
the olives out of the brine, and fqueeze them ; and, when you have
mixed them with the forefaid feeds, put them into the veflel ; and
then, when they come up to the neck of the veflel, put bundles of
dry fennel upon them, and mix two parts of frefh muft, and one of
ftrong brine together, and put it to them. You may ufe olives very
agreeably the whole year, when you put them up in this fort of
pickle.

Some do not bruife the olive, but cut it with a fharp reed : this,
indeed, requires more labour, but it is much better ; for this olive is
fairer and whiter than that which contracts a bluenefs from contufion.
Others, whether they bruife or cut the olives, mix them with a little
toafted fait, and the forefaid feeds ; then they pour in muft fodden in
to one half of the firft quantity, or raifin-wine, or a liquor made with
frefh bees- wax and water, if they can have it. We gave directions a
little before, in this felf-fame book, how this liquor may be made; ail
the reft of the things they manage after the fame manner.

Chufe the very faireft and whiteft Paufian or royal olives , which
have been ftript off the tree by hand, and are without a fpot upon
them ; then throw them into an amphora , after you have fpread dry

4 B fennel

554 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

fennel under them, and mixed maftich- and fennel-feeds with them >
and, when you have filled the veflel to the neck, put ftrong brine to
them ; then make a fluffing of the leaves of reeds, and prefs down
the olives therewith, that they may be funk below the liquor ; and
pour in ftrong brine a fecond time, till it come to the brim of the
amphora. But this olive is not very agreeable in itfelf, but it is ex¬
ceeding proper for thofe pickles and fauces which are ufed at more
lumptuous and plentiful tables ; for, when occafion requires, it is
taken out of the amphora , and, when bruifed, admits of any other
feafoning or pickle you (hall pleafe to join with it; and you may make
it up any way you think proper. Neverthelefs, mod people cut the
festive leek and rue, with young parfley and mint, very lmall toge¬
ther, and mix them with the bruifed olives ; then they add to them
a little peppered vinegar, and a little more honey or honey-wine ; and
bedew them with green oil, and fo cover them up together with a
bundle of green parfley.

Some, with each modius of olives, gathered and pickled after this
manner, mix three hetnince of fait ; and, having added the feeds of
the maftich-tree to them, and fpread fennel under them, fill up the
amphora , as far as the neck, with olives ; then they pour vinegar, that
is not very fharp, into it ; and, when they have almoft filled the am¬
phora, they prefs down the berry with a fluffing of fennel ; and then
add more vinegar, till it come up to the very brim of the veflel : after¬
wards, on the fortieth day, they pour out all the liquor, and mix three
parts of muft, fodden into one half, or one third of the firft quan¬
tity, with one part vinegar, and fill the amphora again. There is alfo
that other way of pickling them, which is approved ; viz. That, when
the white j Paujian has been ripened with ftrong brine, all the liquor
be poured out, and the amphora filled again with two parts of muft,
and one of vinegar, mixed together. The royal , or the orchita olive
may be alfo put up and preferved in this pickle.

Some mix one part wine and two parts vinegar, and, with that
liquor, make the Paufian olives become fo light, as to fwim in the
liquor (i); which if any have a mind to ufe by themfelves, they
fhall find them agreeable enough ; although even thefe, when they
come out of the brine, may be made up in any other manner, and
joined with any other pickle or feafoning whatfoever. - Paufian olives,

(i) Col)mbades. Thefe olives were fo called, T® becaufe they fwim

upon the brine wherewith they were pickled, as Athenaus fays : they were alfo called
from the brine wherewith they were prepared ; and rnxTeiJ'jf, from their fwim-

ming.

after

Chap. XLVII. Of HUSBANDRY. 555

after they are difcoloured, and before they grow ripe and mellow, are
gathered with their ftalks, and kept in the very belt oil : this fort,
above all others, even a whole year after, have the tafte of frefh green
olives. Some alfo, after they have taken them out of the oil, and
Iprinkled them with bruifed fait, ferve them up for new olives.

There is alfo that kind of pickle, which is commonly made ufe of
in the cities of Greece , and they call it epityrum (2); as foon as the
Paufian , or the large round olive, changes its colour from white, and
becomes a little yellowilh, they gather them off the trees by hand,
when the weather is fair, and fpread them in winnowing fans under
a fhade, for one day > and, if any pedicles or ftalks, leaves or twigs,
flick to them, they gather and pick them j the next day they lift

them, and fhut them up in a new frail, and put them under the prefs,
and prefs them very flrongly, that they may exfude all the lees they
have in them. But we fuffer fometimes the berry to continue one
whole night and the next day under the prefs, and to be prefled with
the weight, and emptied, as it were, of all its filth and corruption ;

then, when the thin rind is broken and opened, we take it out of
the prefs j and, upon each rnodius of olives, we pour a Angle Jextarius
of bruifed toafted fait ; alfo we mix maftich-feed with them, and fen¬
nel- and rue-leaves dried under a fhade, after they feem to be cut fmall
enough ; and we let them ftand three hours, till the berry, in fomc
meafure, drink up the fait. Then we pour oil of a good tafte upon
them, fo that it may cover the olive j and we prefs down a bundle
of dry fennel upon them, fo that the liquor may fwim above them.
But, for this fort of pickle, new earthen veflels, without any pitch,
are prepared ; and, that they may not ftp up the oil, they are foaked
with melted tallow, or the like, as oil-jars are ; and then afterwards
they are dried.

(2) Epityrum. Some think, that this kind of preparation was fo called from
which fignifies bran, or the fmall skins which come off the wheat in grinding ; and thefe
olives were called viTvelJ'if, becaufe they were thus bruifed like bran : but this account
of them is not very farisfymg. Some conjecture it was fo called, becaufe it was fcrvc4
up with cheefe, juaji iwi 7iv tv£?V, which feems more probable.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

SS^

CHAP. XLVIII.

Of the Way to pickle black Olives.

BUT after this comes the cold of Winter, during which the ga¬
thering of the olives, and the making of the oil, call again for
the care of the Bailiff’s Wife, as the vintage did before. We fhall
therefore, in the firft place, (fince we have already begun it) give di¬
rections about pickling of olives, and prefently after fubjoin an account
of the method of making oil. They prepare the Faufian or the Orchitan
olives, and, in fome countries, the Ncevian alfo, for great banquets and
feafts: therefore it is proper, when the weather is fair, to gather thefe
off the trees by hand, as foon as they are grown black, but are not as
yet throughly ripe ; and to pick and fift them, and put apart fuch of
•them as fhall feem fpotted or fpoiled, and of a leffer growth : then
to every modius of olives to put three he'mina of unbruifed fait, and
to pour them together into willow-bafkets, and put plenty of fait
upon them, fo that it may cover the olives, and fo leave them to
fvveat together for thirty days, and drop out all their lees ; afterwards
to pour them out into a tub or tray, and, with a clean fponge, wipe
off all the fait, fo as none of it may remain upon them ; then to put
them into a veffel, and fill up the amphora with mud fodden in to
one half, or one third of its firft: quantity ; and put a fluffing of dry
fennel upon them, to prefs down the olives. Neverthelefs, moil
people mix three parts of muff boiled in to one third of its firft quan¬
tity, and one part of vinegar. Some mix two parts of muff and one
of vinegar, and pickle them with this liquor.

Some, when they have gathered the black olives, fait them with
the fame quantity of fait as above, and fo place them in bafkets, that,,
after they have mixed maffich- feeds with them, they may make one
layer of olives, and another of fait by turns, till they come to the
top ; then, after forty days, when the olives have exfuded all the
lees they had in them, they pour them out into a tray or trough j
and, having fifted them, they feparate them from the maftich-feeds,
and wipe them with a fponge, that none of the fait may hick to them ;
then they throw them into an amphora , and add to them mult boiled
^n to one third, or one half of its firft quantity, or even honey, if
they have plenty of it.

To

Chap. XLIX. Of HUSBANDRY. 557

To every modius of olives muft be added one fextarius of ripe anife-
and maftich-feeds, and three cyatbi of fennel-feed 3 and if you have
not this, the fennel itfelf cut fmall, as much as fhall feem fufficient;
and, with every wodius of olives, three hemince of toafted fait, but
not ground, muft be mixed 3 and fo they muft be put up in am -
phors , and thefe muft be flopped clofe up with bundles of fennel,
and daily rolled up and down upon the ground 3 and then every third
or fourth day, whatever lees may be in them, muft be let out. After
forty days, the olives muft be poured into a trough, and only fepa-
rated from the fait 5 but let them not be wiped with a fponge, but
put up into the arnphor juft as they are taken out of it, with fmall.
lumps of fait mixed with them 5 and, after you have put ftuffings
upon them to keep them clofe, let them be laid up in the cellar for
ufe.

The olive which was gathered when it was ripe, and which, by
lying in the brine, is become light, and fwims above the liquor, take
out of the brine, and wipe it with a fponge 3 then cut it in two or
three places with a green reed, and keep it three days in vinegar 3 the
fourth day wipe it clean with a fponge, and put it up into a new pot
or jar, after you have fpread parfley and a little rue under it. Then,,
when the veffel is full of the cut olives, put muft boiled in to one
third of its firft quantity into it, till it come to the mouth of the vef¬
fel ; put the tender tops of young branches of laurel upon the olives
that are pickled after this manner, to prefs them down : after twenty
days make ule of them.

CHAP. XLIX.

How a Marmslad of Olives may be made..

r|^HEY gather black olives exceeding ripe, when the weather is
fair 3 and- fpread them upon reeds for one day, under a ihade,,
and feparate all the damaged berries from them. Alfo, if there be.
any pedicles or ftalks flicking to them, they take them away, and
take out from among them all the leaves and twigs that are mixed
with them : the next day they fift them carefully, that, if there be'
any dirt among them, it may be feparated from them 5 then the un~
bruifed olive is (hut up in a new frail, and put under the prels, that
it may be fqueezed the whole night. The day following they throw

it

558 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

it into a very clean fufpended mill, that its kernel may not be broken :
and, when they are reduced to a math, then with their hand they
mix with them toafted and bruifed fait, with the other dry feafon-
ings ; and thefe are fenugreek, cumin, fennel-feed, and Egyptian
anife-feed. But it will be fufficient to put as many hemince of fait to
them, as there are modii of olives ; and to pour oil upon them, left
they wither } and that ought to be done as often as they Ihail feem
to be dried.

Nor is there any doubt but the marmelad, which is made of the
Paujian olive, has the beft tafte ; but its tafte does not continue found
above two months: but other kinds of olives, fuch as the Licinian
and Culminian , are fitter for this thing. Neverthelefs the Calabrian
olive-tree, which fome call the 'wild-fhrub olive , becaufe of its like-
nefs to it, is reckoned the beft for thefe ufes.

CHAP. L.

After what Manner Oil may be made .

THE beginning of December , for the moft part, is the middle
feafon for gathering of olives, and making oil ; for, before this
time, the bitter oil, which is called Summer- oil, is made; and about
this month they prefs the green oil, then afterwards the ripe oil. But
it is not for the intereft of a Mafter of a family to make bitter oil,
becaufe the olives yield but very little of it, except the berry fall to
the ground by tempeftuous weather, and it be neceflary to gather it
up, left it be eaten up and deftroyed by tame cattle or wild beafts.
But it is of very great advantage to him to make of the green fort,
becaufe the olives both yield enough of it, and by its price it almoft
doubles the income of the Owner : but, if the olive- yards are very
large, it is neceflary, that fome part of them be refer ved for ripe fruit.

But the place, wherein the oil ought to be made, has been already
defcribed in the firft book ; neverthelefs there'are a few things relating
to this affair, which I had before omitted, which muft be mentioned.
A loft to carry the olives into is very neceflary, though we have already
given directions, that the fruit, of every day’s gathering, be prefently
put under the millftones and the prefs. Neverthelefs, becaufe fome-
times the immoderate multitude of berries overcomes the kbour of
them that attend the prefs, and are more than they can manage, there

muft

Chap. L. Of H U S B A N D R Y. 559

mull be a ftore-room in the upper-part of the houfe, where the fruits
may be put : and this loft ought to be like a granary, and to have as
many fmall bings, or diftindt partitions, as the quantity of olives (hall
require, that fo the gathering of each day may be put apart, and laid
up by itfelf.

The floor or bottom of thefe fmall partitions mull be paved with (tone
or tiles, and made fo Hoping, that all the moifture may run quickly
out of them by gutters or pipes j for the lees are very hurtful to the
oil, which, if they remain in the berry, corrupt and fpoil the tafte
of the oil. Therefore, when you have built the partitions in the
manner we have faid, place upon the floor fmall boards, half a foot
diftant from each other j and lay reeds upon them, that are carefully
and clofely woven, fo that they may not let fo much as a berry pafs
through, and be able to fupport the weight of the olives. But hard
by all thefe fmall partitions, in that part where the lees run out of
them, under the very pipes, the floor mull be concave, after the man¬
ner of little trenches j or there mull be a hollow Hone, wherein may
ftand whatever liquor fhall flow out of them, and from whence it
may be drawn out. Moreover you mull: have fats or barrels ready
prepared within-doors, which may receive the lees of every kind of
olives apart by themfelves, whether they be fuch as flow from the
olives pure without any mixture, or fuch alfo as have received fait j
for both of them are fit for many ufes.

But mills are more ufeful than the prefs, for the making of oil j
and the prefs than the canalis , and the J'olea (i). The mills are very
eafily managed j for, according to the bignefs of the berries, the mill-
ftones may be either lowered or raifed, that fo the kernel, which
fpoils the tafle of the oil, may not be broken : moreover, the prefs
difpatches more work, and more eafily, than the J'olea and canalis.
There is alfo a machine like an ered: threfhing inftrument, which is
called a beetle and that does the work not incommodioufly, except
that it is frequently fpoiled, and out of order j and, if you throw a

(i) Columella mentions here feveral machines, wherewith the oil was fqueeTed out of
the olive berries j but gives no particular defcription of any of them, fo that it is not
eafy to form any diftindt idea of them. Cato indeed, in his 22d chapter, gives a par¬
ticular defcription of the trapetum : but it is not very intelligible, perhaps becaufe
of the incorre&nefs of the text,' and learned men differ in their opinions about ir.
Varro fays, that the frapeta were oil-mills made of hard rough (tones; and Columella
feems to make the mola and the trapetum two diftindt things : perhaps by the laft he
means a prefs for fqueezjng the olives, which had its name from the turning of the (crews.
We have no account at all, that I can find, of the canalis and folea : nor is it any great
farisfadtion to be told by Antiquarians, that they were certain machines, ufed by the an-
tients for making oil, Once they give us no account of their ftrudture.

little

560 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XII.

little too many berries into it, you flop it. Neverthelefs, the forefaid
machines' are made ufe of according to the ftate, and condition, and
cuftom of the countries : but that of mills, as alfo of the turning
prels, is the bed. I thought it neceflary to premile thefe things, be¬
fore I dilcourfed of making the oil.

Now we muff come to the thing itfelf, altho' we have omitted
many things, which, as before the vintage, lo, before the gathering
of the olives, and making the oil, mud be all ready prepared; fuch as
plenty of wood, which mud be brought home a long time before, that
fo, when the thing is wanted, the Labourers may not be called away
from their bufmefs : ladders alfo, fmall bafkets, and lowers balkets,
of ten modii and three modi i each, wherein the berries, which are
gathered off the trees, are received ; frails, hempen- and Spanijh-
broom-ropes, iron-ladles, wherewith the oil is emptied from one velfel
to another; covers or lids, wherewith the oil-vefleis are covered;
fponges, greater and fmaller ; pitchers, in which the oil is carried out ;
cane- or reed-mats, into which the olives are gathered ; and, if there
are any other things which now efcape my memory. All thefe
ought to be in great number, becauie they perifh with the ufing, and
become fewer ; of which if any one thing be wanting, when there
is occafion to ufe it, the work is at a dand. But now I fhall perform
what I promifed.

As foon as the berries fhall begin to be of different colours, and
fome of them are already black, yet more of them white, the olive
muft be gathered by hand, when the weather is fair, and lifted and
cleanfed upon mats or reeds fpread under them : then, after they are
cleanfed, they muft be prefently carried to the place where the preffes
ftand, and fhut up intire in new frails, and put under the preffes, that
they may be fqueezed as little a while as can be. Afterward, when
their thin rinds are opened, they ought to be foftened, by adding two
J'cxtarii of whole fait to each mo dius of olives ; and the mafs of bruifed
olives ought to be fqueezed out, either in oblong fquare boards, if it
be the cuftom of the country, or in new frails at leaft : then that
which fhall firft flow from the prels into a round vat, (for that is
better than a fquare leaden veffel, or a receiver made of ftone or brick,
with two divifions in it) let the Lader empty it prefently, and pour it
into great earthen pans prepared for this ufe.

But, in the oil-cellar, let there be three rows of pans, that one of
them may receive the oil of the firft note, that is, of the firft pref-
fmg ; the fecond, that of the fecond ; and the third row, that of the
2 third j

Chap. L. Of HUSBANDRY. 561

third j for it is of great importance not to mix that of the fecond, and
much lefs that of the third prefling, with that of the firft ; becaufe
that is of a much better tafte which flows from the olives with leaft
force of the prefs, as if it dropped from them of its own accord.
When therefore the oil has flood a little in the firft pans, the Lader
ought to ftrain and empty it into the fecond, and then into the next,
till he come to the laft; for the oftener it is ventilated, and worked,
as it were, by emptying it from one veffel into another, the clearer it
becomes, and the more it is freed from its dregs. But it will be fuf-
ficient to place thirty large pans in each row, except the olive-yards
be very large, and require a greater number.

But if, with the colds, the oil fl^ll be congealed with the lees, you
mufl, in that cafe, certainly ufe a little more toafted fait ; that thing
refolves and loofens the oil, and feparates it from every thing that may
hurt or corrupt it. Nor is there any reafon to fear, that the oil will
become fait or brackifh ; for, whatever quantity of fait you fhall put
to it, yet the oil does not receive the tafle of it. But, even thus the
oil ufually does not diflolve, when greater colds than ordinary come
on fuddenly ; therefore they toall nitre, and bruife it and fprinkle it
upon the oil, and mix it with it : this liquifies the lees. There are
fome, tho’ very careful Oilmen, who do not put the berry under the
prefs whole, without breaking it, becaufe they think, that fome part
of the oil is loft by fo doing ; for, when the berry receives the weight
of the prefs, the lees alone are not prefled out of it, but they attradl
fomething of the fatnefs of the oil with themfelves.

But I have this direction to give you upon the whole, That neither
fmoak nor foot be admitted into the place where the oil-prefs ftands,
or into the oil-cellar, as long as the green oil is making there j for
both thefe are very prejudicial to this affair, and the fkilfulleft Oilmen
fcarcely fuffer their work to be done at the light of one Angle lamp j
wherefore both the place where the oil-prefs Hands, and the oil-cellar,
mufl; be fituated towards that quarter of the heavens which is mofl
fheltered from cold winds, becaufe the heat of the fire is not at all
required. Moreover, the barrels and jars, into which the oil is put,
mufl; not only be carefully cleanfed, and put in order, at the time
when the neceflity of bellowing the fruit forces to do it, but, when
they are emptied by the Merchant, the Bailiff's Wife ought prefently
to take care, that, if any dregs or lees have fallen to the bottom of
the veflels, they be immediately cleaned out, and wafhed with a lye
of allies, not very hot, left the veflels throw off and lofe their wax ;
and let it be done once and again : then let them be gently rubbed

4. C with

562 L. J. M. C O L U M E L L A Book XII.

with the hand with lukewarm water, and often rinfed, and fo let all
the moifture be dried up with a fponge.

There are fome who diffolve potters-clay in water like liquid dregs,
and, after they have walked the veffels, daub them on the infide with
this fort of gruel, as you may call it, and fuffer it to dry upon them :
afterwards, when they have occafion to ufe them, they rinfe them
with pure water. Some wafh the veffels throughly all over with lees
of oil firft ; then they walh them with water, and dry them : then
they examine whether the barrels want new wax j for the antients
faid, that it was neceffary to wax them almoft every fixth year, at
the time of making the oil, which I do not underhand how it can be
done : for, as new veffels, if they be heated, eafily receive the melted
wax, fo I cannot believe, that fuch as are old will bear waxing, be-
caufe of the juice of the oil ; which very waxing, nevertheleis, the
Hufbandmen of our times have wholly laid afide, and have been of
opinion, that it was better to wafh the new barrels all over with liquid
gum, and to fuffumigate them with white wax when they are dried,
that they may not lole their good colour, and tarnifh : and they judge,
that this fumigation ought to be done, as often as either the new or
old veffels are cured and leafoned, and prepared for the new oil.
Many, when they have daubed their new barrels or jars with grofs
fat gum, are fatisfied with one gumming for ever : and, indeed, a
veffel which has once imbibed the oil, does not admit of a fecond
gumming ; for the fatnefs of the oil refufes any fuch matter as that of
gum is.

After the month of December , about the beginning of January y
the olive-berry muft be gathered in the fame manner as above, and
the oil prefently preffed out of it ; for, if it be laid up in a loft, it
quickly grows hot ; for, with the Winter-rains, it breeds a greater
quantity of lees, which are very hurtful to oil. Therefore, you muft
beware of making oil for eating of this kind of berry, which may, by
this one way, be avoided ; if, as foon as the berry is brought out of
the field, it be ground, and put into the prefs, and the oil preffed out
of it, and managed, as we have faid above. All Hufbandmen, for
the moft part, have believed, that, if the berry be laid up within the
houfe, the oil will grow in the loft ; which is as falfe, as that com
of any fort grows in the threftiing-floor : and this falfhood that an-
tient author, Porcius Cato , refutes thus ; for he fays, that the olive
grows wrinkled in the loft, and becomes fmaller : for which reafon,
when the Hufbandman has laid up fuch a quantity in the houfe, as
is fufficient for one making j and, after many days, has a mind to

grind

Chap. L. Qf HUSBANDRY. 563

grind it, having forgotten the firft quantity that he had brought in,
he fupplies out of another heap, which he had in like manner placed
apart by itfelf, as much as is wanting to each quantity ; and, by this
one making, the berry, that has refted for fome time, feems to yield
more oil than that which is freffy, and newly gathered, whereas he
has taken many more "rriodii of olives to it. 'Yet, fuppofe that were
exceeding true, neverthelefs there is more money raifed by the price
of green frelh oil, than by the great quantity of that which is bad :
which thing Cato alfo faid. And thus, indeed, whatever addition of
weight or meafure is made to the oil, if you would compute the
quantity of berries, added to that which you reckoned to one making,
you would think it not an increafe and advantage, but a real lols :
wherefore we ought not to hefitate to grind the olives, and put them
under the prefs, as loon as poflible, after we have gathered them.

Nor am I ignorant, that a fecondary oil, for common eating, muft
alfo be made j for, when the olive, which is gnawed by the little
worms, falls off the tree, or has, by ftorms and rains, fallen into the
dirt, they have recourfe to warm water for a remedy j and the cal¬
dron ought to be made hot, that the dirty berries may be walhed.
But this mu ft not be done with exceeding hot water, but with that
which is moderately warm, that the tafte of the oil may become the
more agreeable j for, if the agreeable tafte be boiled out of it, it at¬
tracts the tafte of the little worms, and of any other forts of naftinefs
whatfoever : but, when the olive has been throughly walhed, the
other things ought to be done, as I directed above. But the pureft
and belt oil, and that of the fecondary fort for common ufe, mu ft
not be prefled in the fame frails j for old frails ought to be fet apart
for fuch olives as fall off the trees of their own accord -y and thofe
that are new, for the oil of the firft note ; and, when they have ferved
for prefling out the oil of every particular making, they ought always
to be prefently walhed, twice or thrice, in exceeding hot water : then,
if there be any brook, or running water, they muft be funk in it by
having ftones put into them, that they may be prefled down and de¬
tained by the weight thereof : or, if there be no river, they ought to
be foaked in a lake, or pond, of the pureft water you can find, and
afterwards beaten with rods, that the dirt and dregs may fall off them p
and then they muft be walhed a fecond time, and dried.

4 C 2

CHAP.

L. J. M. COLUMELLA BookXII.

56+

CHAP. LI.

Of Gleucine Oil (1).

ALthough the compofition of Gleucine oil does not belong to this
feafon of the year, neverthelefs it is referved for this part of
the book, left it (hould be inferted not very properly among the rules
laid down for making wine ; but it ought to be made in this manner :
You muft prepare an oil-veflel, of the largeft fize, either new, or, at
leaft, very found and ftrong ; then, in the time of vintage, you muft
pour into it, and mingle together, lixty J'extarii of the very frelheft
and of the beft kind of muft, with eighty pound-weight of oil 3 then
you muft put fpices that are not lifted, yea, not fo much as bruifed
fmall, but (lightly broken, into a fmall ru(h- or flaxen-net, and let
them down with the fmall weight of a ftone, into a part of the muft
and oil : but, let the fpices be weighed in the proportions we have
here fubjoined 3 of calamus , fweet-fmelling rujh , cardamom , the wood
of the balfam-tree , palm-tree-bark , fenugreek fteeped in old wine,
and afterward dried, and alfo toafted 3 bulrujh-root , as alfo Greek
flower-de-luce, and Egyptian anife , of equal weight 3 that is, of each
one pound and a quarter, as we faid above: (hut them up in a fmall
net, and let them down into the muft and oil, and daub the firkin
or jar : after the feventh or the ninth day, if any dregs or filth (hall
ftick by itfelf to the chops of the jar, take it away with your hand,
and wipe it ; then drain off the oil, and put it up in new veflels.

Prefently after take out the fmall net, and bruife the (pices, as clean
as pofiible, in a mortar 3 when you have bruifed them, put them again
into the fame jar, and pour in as much oil as you did at firft, and ftop
it up, and place it in the Sun : after the feventh day decant the oil 3
and what remains of the muft, put it up in a pitched barrel : and, if
you do not confume all this medicament, you (hall give it to weak
oxen, and the reft of the cattle, to drink. But this fecondary oil,
which is not of a difagreeable fmell, may ferve for a daily ointment
for fuch as are affedted with a pain of the nerves.

( 1) Oleum gleucinum was a compofition made of oil and muft : this laft the Greeks
called yMvji&p which, being mixed with the oil, gave it this denomination.

k

CHAP.

Chap.LIII. Of HUSBANDRY.

565

CHAP. LII.

Aft er what Manner you may make Oil for Ointments .

MAKE oil for ointments thus : Before the olive-berry grows
black, when it firft begins to be difcoloured, but not as yet
fpotted, and of various colours, gather by hand the Licinian efjpe-
cially, if you have any ; if not, the royal j if you have not this
neither, then the Culminian berry ; and, when you have cleanfed it,
put it prefently under the prefs whole, and lqueeze the lees out of it j
then break the olive in a fufpended mill, and put it either into frames
made of oblong fquare pieces of wood, or a new large frail j and,
having put it under the prefs, prefs it in fuch a manner, as you may
not writhe the veflels, but only fuffer it to be fqueezed as little as can
be, with the weight of the prefs. Then, when the oil has flowed
from them in this manner, let the Lader feparate it forthwith from the
lees, and remove it into new pans, 'apart by itfelf, till it grow clear.
The reft of the oil, that (hall be fqueezed out afterward, may be
approved for food, either when it is mixed with that of another fort,
or by itfelf.

CHAP. LIII.

Of falling of Swine s Fief.

THUS far we have faid enough of oil ; now let us return to
lefler things. You muft reftrain all kinds of cattle, and efpe-
cially fwine, from drinking, the day before they are killed, that their
flefti may be the drier ; for, if they drink, their flefh, when it is
faked, will have the more water in it : therefore, having killed them
when they are thirfty, bone them well j for this makes the falted flefti
lefs liable to corrupt, and more durable : then, after you have boned
it, fait it carefully with toafted fait, which is not too fmall, but
broken in a fufpended mill ; and fluff in a large quantity of fait, into
thofe parts efpecially, wherein the bones are left j and, having laid the
flitches or pieces in due order, upon boards, place huge weights upon
them, that the blood may be prefled out of them. The third day

remove

566 L.].M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

remove the weights, and rub the falted flefh carefully with your hands ;
and, when you have a mind to put it into the fame place again,
fprinkle it with fmall bruifed fait, and fo replace it : nor fhall you
ceafe to rub the fait daily into it, till it be completely falted j but, if
it be fair and clear weather, during thefe days, wherein the flefh is
rubbed with fait, you fhall let it lie in the fait nine days ; but, if it
be cloudy weather, or rain, the falted flefh muft be carried to a pond
on the eleventh or twelfth day, and the fait firft fhaken off it j then
it muft be carefully wafhed with frefh fweet water, and let not the
fait flick any-where upon it ; and, when it is dried a little, it muft
be hung up in the larder, where a moderate fmoak may come, which
may dry it, if there be any water as yet contained in it. The proper
time for faking flefh after this manner, will be when the Moon is in
her wane, efpecially about the middle of Winter, and alfo in the
month of February , before the thirteenth day.

There is another way of faking flefh, which may be put in pradice
even in hot countries, at all times of the year ; and it is fuch as this:
When the fwine are kept from water the day before, they are killed
the day following ; and they take off their hair, either with fcalding
hot water, or with a fmall flame of brufhwood (for their hair is pulled
off both ways). They cut their flefh into pieces of a pound- weight ;;
then they fpread toafted fait in the bottom of a barrel or tub, but
moderately bruifed (as we faid above) ; then they lay the fmall pieces
of flefh very clofe to one another, and in good order j and throw in
fait by turns : but, when they come almoft to the brim of the barrel,
they fill the reft of it with fait, and prefs it down into the barrel
with weights laid upon it : and this flefh is always preferved and kept
without fpoiling, and remains in its own brine, as any other falted
thing whatfoever.

CHAP. LIV.

Aft er what Manner you may pickle lurneps and Navews.

TAKE the roundeft turneps you can find, and wipe them, if they
be dirty ; and, with a (harp knife, pare off the outer fkin •
then (as the Oilmen ufe to do) make an incifion upon them crofs-
wife, with an iron-tool in form of a crefcent : but beware you do
not cut the turnep through to the bottom. Then fprinkle fait, that

is

Chap. LV. 0/ HUSBANDRY. 567

is not too fmall, between the incifions of the turneps, and lay them
in order in a tray or tub ; and, having fprinkled them with a little
more fait, let them alone for three days, till they exfude their
moiflure. After the third day, tafte the middle fibre of the turnep,
if it has taken the fait ; then, when it fhall feem to have taken enough
of it, after you have taken them all out, wafh them, one by one, in
their own liquor ; or, if theioy be not much liquor, put ftrong brine
to it, and fo wafh them : then put up the turneps into a fquare wil¬
low cheft, which is not woven too clofely, but yet very firmly, with
large willows ; then put a board upon them, fo fitted, that it may be
prelfed down within the cheft to the very bottom, if there be occa-
fion for it : and, after you have thus fitted the board, put heavy
weights upon it, and let them dry one whole night and a day ; then
put them up in a pitched earthen jar, or in a large glafs bottle ;
and fo pour in muftard and vinegar, that they may be covered with
liquor.

Navews alfo may be pickled with the fame liquor as turneps ; but,
if they be fmall, they muft be pickled whole ; if large, they muft be
cut. But you muft take care, that both thefe be pickled, and put
up, while they are young and tender, before they form their ftalk,
or put forth any fprouts or lLoots. Throw the fmall navews into the
vefiel whole, and the large ones divided into three or four parts, and
infufe them in vinegar ; and alfo put one fextarius of toafted fait into
a congius of vinegar. After the thirtieth day you may ufe them.

CHAP. LV.

How you may make Muftard .

CLEANSE and fift muftard-feed carefully; then wafh it with
cold water; and, when it has been well- washed, let it lie two
hours in water ; afterwards take it out ; and, having fqueezed the
water out of it with your hands, throw it into a new mortar, or into
one that is made very clean, and bruile it fmall with peftils : when
you have bruifed it, draw the whole mafh together to the middle of
the mortar, and prefs it down with your flat open hand ; and, after
you have compreflfed it, fcarify it ; and, having placed a few live coals
upon it, pour nitred water upon it, that it may free it from all its
bitternefs and palenefs ; then raife the mortar, that all the moiflure
may be drained out of it ; after this put white fharp vinegar to it,
3 and

568‘ L. j. M. COLUMELLA Book XII.

and mix it throughly with the peftil, and ftrain it : this liquor does
exceeding well for pickling of turneps. But, if you would prepare
muftard for the ufe of great entertainments, when you have fqueezed
all the noxious juice of it, add the frefheft pine-apples you can find,
and almonds to it j and bruife them carefully together, and pour in
vinegar upon them : do the other things as I faid above. When you
come to ufe this muftard, it will not ofl’fy be very fit for fawce, but
very beautiful and pleafing to the eye ; for it is of an exquifite white-
nefs, if it be made with care.

CHAP. LVI.

After what Manner you may preferve and pickle the Alif-
fander- and the Skirret-^^/j-.

BEFORE the aliflander puts forth its ftalk, take its root out of
the ground in the month of January , or even in February ;
and rub it carefully, that nothing of earth may ftick to it, and lay it
in vinegar and faltj then, after the thirtieth day, take it out, and
pare the bark off it, and throw it away : but, having cut the heart
of it into fmall pieces, put them up into a fmall glafs bottle, or a new
earthen pot j and put liquor to them, which ought to be made as is
dire&ed below : Take mint and raifins of the Sun, and a fmall dry
onion ; and bruife it fmall with parched red-bearded wheat, and a
little honey ; and, when it is well bruifed, mix with it two parts of
muft boiled in to one half, or a third part of its fir ft quantity, and
one part vinegar ; and fo pour them all together into the fame earthen
pot, and, having put its cover clofe upon it, cover it over with leather :
then, when you have a mind to ufe it, bring out the fmall roots, that
are cut into pieces, with their own liquor, and put oil to them. At
this very time you may pickle the fkirret-root, in the fame manner
as above ; but, when you fhall have occafion to ufe it, you fhall
take it out of the jar, and pour oxymel, with a little oil, upon it.

CHAP.

Chap. LVII. Of HUSBANDRY.

S69

CHAP. LVII.

How to niake up a Sallet of eafy and quick Digeftion (i) ; or,
as others will have it, a Sallet or Sawce with a Mixture
of Garum and Vinegar .

PUT into a mortar favory, mint, rue, coriander, parfley, the
fedtive leek, or, if you have none, a green onion, the leaves of
lettuce and of rocket, green thyme, or cat-mint, as alfo green penny¬
royal, and falted new-cheefe ; bruife all thefe equally together, and
mix a little peppered vinegar with them : when you have made up all
this mixture together, in a l'mall dilh, pour oil upon it. When you
have bruifed the forefaid greens all together, join with them as many
well-cleanfed walnuts as you fhall think fufficient ; and mix a little
peppered vinegar throughly with them, and pour oil upon them :
bruife fefamum, (lightly parched, with thefe greens above-mentioned :
alfo mix a little peppered vinegar with them, upon which pour a little
oil.

Cut Gallican cheefe, or of any other fort whatfoever, very final],
and bruife it, and the kernels of pine-apples, if you have plenty of
them, if not, toafled filberts, after you have taken off their fkin, or
almonds; and mix them in equal quantities upon the forefaid feafon-
ing herbs ; and add a little peppered vinegar to them, and mix them
throughly; and pour oil upon the whole compofition,

If you have none of thefe green feafoning-or fallet-herbs, bruife
dry penyroyal, or thyme, or marjoram, or dry favory, with cheefe,
all together, and put peppered vinegar and oil to them. Neverthe-
lefs, any one of thefe herbs, when they are dry, if you have not the
reft, may alfo by itfelf be mixed with cheefe.— Take of white pepper,
if you have any, if not, of black pepper, three ounces ; of parfley-
feed, two ounces ; of lafer-root, which the Greeks call Jilphium , an
ounce and an half; of cheefe, two ounces ; after you have bruifed

(i) Moretum may fignify any kind of hath, and is the fame as Telf^a., or intritum :
it was commonly made up of different forts of herbs, and fome other ingredients, and
diverfified according to every one’s fancy, by the addition of fomeching new, as we fee
in this chapter. It is called here moretum oxyporum , either becaule it was of itfelf of
eafy and quick digeftion, or contributed to the quick digeftion of other things, and fo
may be tranilated, a fallet or favuce of quick chge/lwn, or that paffeth eafily, as oppofed
to* (SeyJ'v'Troeyv, which paffeth with difficulty. When it had garum and vinegar mixed
with it, theycalled it moretum oxygarum.

40

and

570 L. J. M. COLUMELLA, &c. Book XII.

and fifted them, mix them with honey, and keep them in a new pot :
then, when you fhall have occafion to ufe them, dilute what quan¬
tity you fhall think proper with vinegar, and garum. - Take an ounce

of lovage, two ounces of raifins of the Sun, after you have taken out
their flones ; three ounces of black or white pepper : thefe, if you
avoid greater expences, you may mix throughly with honey, and fo
keep them. But, if you have a mind to make a more coflly and
valuable fallet, for eafy and quick digeilion, you fhall mix thefe fame
things with the compofition ahove-defcribed, and fo lay it up for ufe.
But alfo, if you have no lafer, in (lead of the Jilphium , you fhall put
half an ounce of honey to it.

I do not think it improper, Publius Si hinus, as a conclufion of
the work I have finifhed, to declare to my Readers, (if fo be there
(hall be any who may vouch fafe to take cognizance of thefe things)
that I did not at all doubt, that there are things almofl infinite, which
might have been ingrafted into this fubjedt ; but that I judged it
proper to publifh only fuch as feemed the moft necefiary. However,
Nature has not bellowed, even upon grey hairs, knowledge and pru¬
dence in all things ; for, even whofoever have been efteemed the wifefl
•of mortals, are faid to have known many things, but not all.

L.JU-

[ 57i ]

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

H I S

BOOK

O F

TREES, (i).

FOrafmuch as we Teem to have given abundance of precepts in the
firft book, concerning the culture of lands ; the care of trees
and Ihrubs, which is even reckoned the greateft part of Huf-
bandry, will not now be unfeafonable. Therefore we alfo think it
proper, as Virgil did, to diflinguifh plants of trees into two kinds ;
one of which grows up of its own accord, the other proceeds from
human induftry and care. That kind, which does not come forth by
human affitlance, is more proper for timber : this, upon which labour

is

(i) In all, or moft of the oldeft editions of Columella , this (mail treatife upon trees
was placed as the third book of his fyftem of Agriculture : but learned men, who had O
carefully confidered this work, foon found, that this fmall book made no part of it; there¬
fore Aldus , and other learned Editors after him, threw it out of the place wherein it had
been inconfiderately placed, and printed it feparately by itfelf. There are many reafons
which may convince any attentive perfon, that this book is not at all a part of that work
infcribed by Co hone 11 a to Publius Silvinus , but a part of a different treatife; for the very
beginning of that book, which, by inferting this, was difpofTefTed of its rank, and placed
as the fourth in order, proves, that not this book of trees, but one, which treats of the
culture of land, did immediately precede: for the author fays, Hitherto we have treated
of the culture of land ; vow follows the care of trees: and it cannot be fuppofed, that, if
he had treated of trees in the book immediately preceding, be would have laid in the next
following, that he then began to treat of that fubjecl : and it would be an inexcufable
want of method, diligence, and attention, in an author, if, after having treated of feveral
things in a preceding book, he-ftiould treat of the fame things over again, and in the
lame words, in the very next bcok ; which would be exadtly the cafe, if this book were
reckoned the third in Columella's lyftem of Husbandry : moreover, by fo doing, the whole
order and numbers of the books, mentioned by Columella himlelf in feveral places, would
be inverted, and really different from what he himfelf aliens it to be ; and when h.e
fays, in the beginning of the eighth book, that he had finifhed fuch and fuch things in
feven books, he ought to have faid eight , and that which he calls his eleventh, he ought
to have called the twelfth-, and in feveral other inftances, which it is needlcfs to mention.

It is alfo to be obferved, that in all the other books he mentions Silvinus, but in this
there is no mention of him at all : from all which it is reafonable to think, that this book
is the fecond of two, which he formerly wrote upon Husbandry, as appears by the very
firft fentence; and that the firft, which treated of the culture of the ground, is loft, and
this other, concerning trees, has been preferved. And it feems very probable, that thefe

4 D 2 were

s72 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. I.

is befiowed, is fit for fruit ; therefore this one is the chief : and this
kind itfelf is divided into three different forts; for, from a young
plant, flip, or fhoot, either a tree arifes, as the olive-tree , the fig-tree \
or a jhrub , as rofe-bujbes , reeds ; or a certain third thing, which we
cannot properly call either a tree, or a fhrub, as is the vine : we fhall
teach you the culture of trees and fhrubs, when we fhall have firft
given precepts and directions concerning vines.

Whoever 'fhall have a mind to plant a vineyard, or to make a plan¬
tation of trees for the fupporting of vines, ought fil'd; to make nur-
feries; for then he will know what kind of vine he is about to plants
for that which is purchafed with money, and is let in its place, has
no certain characters of excellency, and of noble qualities, to be de¬
pended on ; becaufe it is doubtful, whether he who fold it did ufe
diligence in choofing the plants: moreover, that which is brought
from far diftant parts, does not eafily familiarize itfelf with our foil ;
for which reafon, that which is foreign, and of a diftant county, does,
with greater difficulty, take root, and grow up. It is bed therefore
to make a nurfery in the fame ground, where you are about to plant
the vine, or, at lead, in the neighbourhood : and the nature of the
place is of great importance with refpeCt to this ; for, if you are about
to lay out your hills and rifing grounds in vineyards, and in plantations
of trees for fupporting vines, you mud ufe this precaution, to make
0 your nurfery in the dried place you can find ; and that the vine may,
from its infancy, as it were, accudom itfelf to little moidure : other-
wife, where you have tranfplanted it from a moid to a dry place, be¬
ing deprived of its former nourifhment, it will decay and fail. But,
if you have champagne wet and only lands in your poflefiion, it will
be of advantage to make a nurfery alfo in a like place, and to ac¬
cudom the vine to a large quantity of moidure ; for a fiender dry
vine, when tranfplanted into a watery ground, does certainly rot.
But it will be fufficient to turn up the plain, even, and juicy land it¬
felf, which you dedinate for a nurfery, with that fpade of two feet
and an half, which Rudies call fefiertium. This repadination, or
trenching and opening the ground for planting, has more depth than*
one foot and an half, but lefs than two feet : with this kind of fpade,
a jugerum of land is turned up, by fifty Labourers, in one day. But

V/ere his firft eflTays upon this fubjedt, which, no doubt, being well received, his friends
engaged him to revife and inlarge the fame ; fo that having afterwards compofed a new
work, much more complete than the former upon the fame fubjedt, and added ftveral
other books, for the improvement of Husbandry and domeftic oeconomy, his firft effay
wa pegiedted as lefs perfedt, and afterwards a part of it periftied.

you

Chap. II. Of HUSBANDRY. 573

you may trench an hill or riling ground, of the compafs of one ja-
gerum, with fixty Labourers, if you do not trench it lefs than two
feet deep : or, if you have a mind to make a nurfery in the fame
place, when you defign to plant a regular vineyard, you may trench,
or prepare for planting, a jugerum of ground, three feet deep, with
eighty Labourers, in one day ; provided neverthelefs, that neither
Hone, nor gravel- Hones, or other more difficult Huff intervene : in
which cafe, how many Labourers it may require, is very uncertain.
But we fpeak of ground where there is nothing but earth.

CHAP. II.

What Sorts of Plants or Shoots you ought to gather \ and

when.

A V I N G finifhed the trenching or the digging of the ground,
in the month of February , or in the firft part of March , gather
your plants : but thofe are the held, which are gathered off vines that
have been marked ; for he that has it much at heart, to make good
nurferies, about the time of vintage, marks with ochre mixed with
vinegar (that it may not be wafhed off by the rains) the vines which
have brought to maturity fruit, that is both found and incorrupted,
and in great quantity. And he does not do this only for one year,
but he carefully views the fame vines for three or more vintages fuc-
ceffively, to fee whether they continue and perfevere to be fruitful ;
for fo it is manifefd, that the fruit proceeds from the generous quali¬
ties of the vines, and not from the plenty of the year.

If the vines keep the fame conftant courfe for lcveral vintages,
fhoots gathered from fuch vines as thefe will yield good wine, and in
great quantity : for grapes, of whatever kind they may be, which
come to maturity found, and without fpoiling, make wine of a far
better talle, than fuch as are eafily damaged, or over-haflily ripened
by the great heat, or by any other caufe.

C II A P.

574

L, J. M. COLUMELLA

Chap. III.

CHAP. III.

After what Manner you may choofe your Shoots ; and of the
Quality and Condition of the Ground,

BUT chufe (hoots from vines of a large berry, a thin hufk, few
and fmall grape-fiones, and of a fweet tade. Thofe gathered
from the loins of the vine are reckoned the bed ; thofe from the
fhoulders are next to them ; and the third are thofe gathered from the
upper mold part of the vine, which very quickly take root and grow,
and are more fertile than the others; but they likewile fpeedily grow
old. I do not approve the fetting of fhoots or fprays, that grow out
of the dock of the vine, becaufe they are barren.

In fat, and level, and moid places, plant the early-ripe vines, and
fuch as are weak, with thin berries, and fhort joints ; for this- kind of
land is fit for fuch kind of vines. In thirdy, lean, and dry places,
plant a vine that is naturally fertile and drong, with the grapes clofe
and thick let : for, if you plant drong vines in fat land, they will be
the more luxuriant in dioots and leaves ; and whatever fort of fruit
they bring forth, they will not bring it to maturity : on the other
hand, vines that are weak will quickly fail and decay in poor, lean
land, and will yield very little fruit. Plant every kind of vine apart
by itfelf : fo you will prune and gather the grapes of every fort in
its own proper feafon.

Young fhoots, planted with a piece of the old fpray, foon take
root, and grow drongly ; but they quickly grow old*, but thofe that
are fet without any part of the old branch, take root, and grow up
more flowly ; but then they fail, and decay more flowly. It is proper
to commit the fhoots to the earth, as frefh and newly gathered as
pofiible : neverthelefs, if any delay or hinderance fhall happen, which
may prevent their being planted prefently, they mud be, as carefully
as pofiible, covered all over with earth, in a place where they can feel
neither winds nor rains. Make your nurferies and plantations at the
time of the New Moon, and about the tenth and the twentieth day.
This is the bed time for the planting of vines : but, when you plant,
avoid cold winds.

Plant the malleolus or mallet- fhoot in this manner : It is proper,
that the mallet-fhoot-rod fhould not be of more than fix eyes ; pro¬
vided neverthelefs, that they have but fhort fpaces between the knots,

5 with

Chap. III. Of HUS BAN DRY. 575

with a very fharp bill cut off, with a round cut, the lower part of the
fhoot you are about to fet in the ground, hard by the knob or joint,
but fo, that you may not hurt the eye ; and prefently fmear it over
with ox’s dung : then fallen the fprig flraight into earth that has been
well paflinated and dunged, fo that no lefs than four eyes of it be hid.
It will be fufficient, that the fpace of one foot every way be left be¬
tween the plants. When they have taken root, and grow well, let
them be pampinated, or freed from their fuperfluous twigs and leaves,
that they may not nourifh more twigs than they ought ; alfo let them
be digged as often as can be : let them not be touched with an iron-
tool. In the twenty-fourth month let them be cut : after the thirty-
fixth month let them be tranfplanted.

Place your vineyard in land that has refled and lain fallow; for
where there has been a vineyard, whatever you plant fooner than the
tenth year will, with more difficulty, take root and grow, and will
never recover flrength. Before you plant land with vines, examine
carefully, and try what tafle it is of ; for fuch a tafle will it commu¬
nicate to the wine. But the tafle of it (as we taught in the firfl book)
will be perceived and found out, if you foak the earth in water ; and,
v/hen you have flrained it, then you may tafle the water. Sandy
earth, under which there is conflantly a fweet moifltire, is fitted for
vines; land like to this, under which there are foft crumbling gravel-
flones, is alfo very good : earth that is gathered together, and moved
from any other place, is equally ufeful for this purpofe. Gravel alfo,
under which there lies fweet white day, or potters-earth, is proper
for vines: but all land whatfoever, that cleaves and chaps during the
Summer, is ufelefs for vines and trees. The lower earth nourifhes the
vines and the tree, and that which is uppermoll guards and preferves
them.

Rocks, upon the uppermoll part of the earth, hurt both vines and
trees ; in the lower part they cool and refrefh them : and ground of a
middling thinnefs is befl for vines ; but that which tranfmits, or pre¬
fently drinks up the fhowers, or, on the other hand, retains them
long upon its furface, mull be avoided : but that which is tolerably
thin on the upper part, and thick and clofe about the roots, is the
mofl ufeful and proper. On mountains, and riling grounds, and fides
of hills, vineyards have difficulty to take firm root and grow ; but they
yield wine of a firm, and excellent tafle. In moifl, even, and level
places, vineyards are exceeding flrong ; but they produce wine of
a -weak flat tafle, and which does not keep long. And fu ice we
have given directions concerning the plants, and the quality and con¬
dition

576 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. IV.

dition of the foil, we fihall now treat of the different kinds of vine¬
yards.

CHAP. IV.

Of the feveral Kinds of Vineyards,

VINES rejoice mofl, and thrive beft, on trees, becaufe they
naturally tend aloft, and grow to a great height ; alfo upon
trees they produce more firm-wood, and larger boughs • and they
throughly concodt their fruit, and ripen it equally. This kind of
vines we call arbuftive- or arbour-vines ; of which we fhall lpeak at
greater length in their due place. But, commonly, there are three
kinds of vineyards in ufe : vineyards, where the vines grow upon
frames ; vineyards, where the vines lie at their full length upon the
ground.; and then a third fort, where the vines grow upright from
the ground, fupporting and {landing by themfelves, after the manner
of trees : this kind, compared with that which grows upon frames,
has, in fome things, the difadvantage, and is inferior to it, and in
other things excels it. A vineyard laid upon frames receives more
air, and bears fruit higher, and concodts and ripens it more equally ;
but the culture of it is more difficult : but this, that grows upright,
is fo conftituted, that it may be plowed alfo ; and thereby attains to
greater fruitfulnefs, becaufe it is oftener cultivated, and with lefs ex¬
pellees. But that which is immediately laid at its full length, and
thrown fiat upon the ground, produces much wine, but not of a good
quality.

A vineyard is beft planted in land that is well paftinated or trenched :
neverthelefs, fometimes vines are even better committed to furrows in
fome places ; fometimes alfo they fet them in trenches ; but, as I faid,
a jugerum of ground may be paginated three feet deep, by eighty La¬
bourers, in one day : but one Labourer digs a furrow in the earth
two feet deep and feventy feet long, in one day. One Labourer makes
eighteen three feet trenches, that is, three feet every way, in one day :
or, if any body has a mind to plant the vines wider, and at a greater
diftance, from one another, one Labourer makes twelve trenches, four
feet every way, in one day ; or one Labourer digs twenty trenches,
two feet every way, in one day. But you mull take care, that the

vines

Chap. V. Of HUSBANDRY. 577

;vines be fet deeper in places that are dry and hoping, than in fuch as
are moid and level.

In a vineyard that is planted exceeding dole, they fet the vines at
the didance of five feet from each other ; but, in fuch vineyards as
are planted wider, they put the fpace of feven or eight feet between
the vinesj but in fuch as are planted the thinned:, (that they may be
eafily plowed alfo) they place the vines ten feet didant from each
other. This way of planting a vineyard takes up, without doubt, a
greater extent of ground } but the vines thrive the bed, grow exceed¬
ing drong, and become the mod fruitful. When you fet the plants,
dig the bottom of the furrow or trench with hoes, and make it foft :
fee that the vine, which you plant, look towards the Eaft when it is
tied to the prop : in the bottom of the trench place dones about five
pound-weight, fo that they may not prefs upon the vine } but yet let
them be hard by its roots. Moreover, after you have done thefe
things, put an hemina of the hulks and dones of white grapes to the
root of a black vine, and of black grapes to the root of a white vine,
and fo fill up the trench or furrow to the middle with dunged earth :
then the next three years fill up the trench or the furrow gradually,
■till you fill it up to the top, fo the vines will accudom themfelves to
ftrike their roots downwards. But the dones give room to the roots
where they may creep and fpread themfelves, and they repel the water
in Winter } and the hulks of the grapes ad'ord them moidure in Sum¬
mer, and force them to put forth their roots. Forafmuch as we
have directed you, after what manner vines mud be planted 5 we fhall
now teach you how to cultivate them.

CHAP. V.

After what Manner Vmes ought to he cultivated.

SUFFER the vineyard that is newly planted to put forth all its
buds } and, as foon as the young twig or fhoot lhall be about
four inches, then, at length, pampinate them, and leave two of them
for firm-wood } the one, which you may fet apart to grow to its full
length, for forming and condituting the vine ; and the other, whicfi
you may have for a fubfidiarv fhoot, if, peradventure, that which is
defigned for the row fhould periih : this the Hufbandmen call the
Keeper, or the Guardian . Then the next year, when you prune t}ie

4. E vine.

57 8 L. J. M. COLU M ELLA Chap. V.

vine, leave one rod, which is the bell. The third year model and
adjuft the vine, while it is tender, into what form you pleafe. If
you defign to form it for a frame, let apart one firm young bough for
growth, fo as you may pare off, with a (harp pruning hook, the two
eyes that are next to the ground, that they may not bud } then leave
the three following eyes, and cut off the remaining part of the rod.
But, if you defire, that the vine (hould hand by itfelf, without any
fupport, you muft fuffer its arms, or boughs, to grow and extend
themfelves as you do thole of a tree ; and you muft endeavour, that
it be formed into an orbicular Chape, as exactly as poftible : for, be-
ftdes that it has a beautiful appearance when it is fo trimmed, it is
alfo in lefs danger, and labours lefs, when, being ftablifhed and le-
cured, as it were, by an equilibrium on every fide, it refts upon it¬
felf. But it will be fufficient, when the arms of the vine (hall be
firft fet apart for growth, that one fingle eye be left on each fingle
twig, that it may not forthwith be oppreffed with their burden and
weight. After this pruning, when you have gathered the fprays, dig
the vineyard deep, and equally, with hoes j or plow it, if it be laid
out fo wide, as that it can be done.

From the fifteenth of Ottober , begin to ablaqueate your vineyard ;
and fee that you have it completely ablaqueated before the middle of
Winter. Do not drefs the vine during the fhorteft days of Winter,
unlefs you have a mind to trace and follow thofe roots that (hall
appear in the ablaqueation ; for then, at length, it will be very proper
to ampute them ; but to do it in fuch a manner, as not to hurt the
ftock, but rather leave about one inch of it from the mother, and fo
cut away the root. For, when the root is pared away nearer, befides
that it gives a wound to the vine, and thereby hurts it, there is this
farther inconveniency, that from the very fear itfelf more roots creep
forth : therefore it is heft, that a fmall part of the root be left, and
fo to cut away the uppermoft parts, which Ruftics call Summer-roots j
which being cut away after this manner, peri(b, and do not hurt the
vines any further. Suckers alfo may be cut during the fhorteft days ;
fo much the rather, becaufe when they are extirpated, during the colds,
others do not fo eafily fpring out in their room.

After the ablaqueation is finifhed, it will be proper, every third
year, before the Winter- folftice, to put no lefs than two fextarii of
foaked dung to the roots of the vines, except pigeons-dung, of which
if you put more than an hemina , it will hurt the vine : then, after
the Winter-folftice, dig all round the pit you have made in abla-
queating, or laying open the roots of the vine, and the earth you
I have

Chap. VI. Of HUSBANDRY. 579

have thrown out of it. Before the vernal Equinox, which is on the
twenty-fifth of March, level or fill up the hollow you have made
by laying open the roots of the vine. After the thirteenth of April heap
up the earth to the vine : then in Summer harrow it as often as you pof-
fibly can. Five Labourers ablaqueate a jugerum of vineyard in one
day ; five dig it, and three harrow it. Four Labourers prune a juge¬
rum of ftrong, thriving, finifhed, and already conftituted, vineyard in
one day ; and fix bind it to the frames or props. As to vines that
grow upon, and are fupported by trees, nothing of this nature can be
exactly determined, becaufe the inequality of the trees does not allow
11s to apprehend exadtly what may be a reasonable talk for La¬
bourers. Some think fit not to prune the next year a vine that is
tranfplanted then the following year to lop and purge it, and to cut
one rod of it to the third eye, which vve may fet apart for growth,
and bearing fruit : then the third year, if the vine grows flrong, and
thrives well, to allow one eye more to the rod we fet apart for growth :
the fourth year, to add two eyes more to the next pruning ; and fo
the fifth year at furthefi, to place the vine upon the frame. This
fame order and method of culture we ourfelves alfo have approved,
after having made a trial of it.

CHAP. VI.

Of cutting and propagating an old Vineyard .

I Would not advife you to cut an old vineyard, if it has its roots
upon the Surface of the ground ; otherwife the new vineyard alfo,
which Shall Spring up out of the cutting, will never have Strength fo
as to turn to any account, its roots Swimming upon the Surface of
the ground ; for which reafon you fhall not reap any great plenty of
fruit ; and, notwithstanding all your pains, it will quickly grow old,
and decay. Therefore this fort of vineyard, if the trunks and bodies
of the vines are not dried, and if it can be bended, is eafily laid
fiat in furrows made for that purpofe, and fo renewed and reftored.
But if it is dried and withered to fuch a degree, that it cannot be
bended, the firlt year ablaqueate it, not too deep, but only towards
the Surface of the ground, fo that you may not dig up or hurt the
foots ; and put dung to the roots of the vines, and prune them, fo
as to leave but few firm- wood-branches upon them, on which you

4 E 2 may

580 L.J.M.COLUMELLA Chap. VI.

may depend ; and dig it carefully, and pampinate it frequently, that
it may by no means nourish any fiuperfluous and ufelefs fprays. When
it is thus throughly cultivated, it will produce firm and long woody-
branches, which the following year you muft propagate and make
layers of, after you have made trenches for them between the rows of
the vines : and then, during the fpace of three years afterwards, you
muft frequently dig it, till it take firm root, and grow' ftrong ; and'
you muft kill the mother vine, taking no care of, and making no
proviiion for, the fupport of her which you defign to remove and take,
out of the way. The laft year of the three, you muft intirely extir¬
pate and take away the mother vine, and fo reduce the- young vine¬
yard into regular rows.

But if an old vineyard, which has nothing left but that the vines
are of a good kind, fhall have its roots fituated deep in the earth, fo
that they are not feen when they are ablaqueated, ablaqueate that
vineyard about the beginning of March , before you cut it and, when
you have ablaqueated it very deep, cut it immediately. Leave the
ftock four inches from the roots, and, if it can be done, cut it off*
with a little faw, hard by fome knot, and fmooth the wound with a
very fharp knife ; then put fmall earth, tolerably well dunged, upon-
it, fo that when the ftock is covered over with it, there may not be
lefs than three inches of earth upon the wound, or place, where it
was cut. The reafon for doing this is, that it may not dry and wither
with the Sun, and that, from attracting and receiving the moifture
which the earth affords, it may the better yield, and put forth, firm-
wood. But a vineyard that is of a bad kind, and alfo unfruitful,
and has its uppermoft parts both mouldy, hollow, and confumed, if
the roots of the vines are placed deep enough in the earth, it will be
very proper to ingraft them ; provided that, when they are ablaqueat¬
ed, their lower part, which is laid bare, be amputed fo exactly even
with the ground, that it may not appear above it, when the earth is-
heaped upon it.

CHAP.

Chap. VII, Of HUSBANDRY.

5?i

C H A P. vh:

Of propagating Vines. * „

HERE are three kinds of propagations mod in ufe : one,
whereby a rod fprung from its mother is committed to a fur¬
row ; a fecond, whereby the mother herfelf is laid flat, and all her
young branches divided and diffributed among feveral props ; a third
kind, whereby the vine is cloven into two or three parts, if it is to be
divided and carried into different rows on each fide. This kind of^
propagation gathers drength, and grows up very flowly, becaufe the
vine, being divided, lofes its pith. And, fince we have mentioned the
feveral ways of propagating, let us demondrate after what manner
each of them muff be performed.

When you have a mind to deprefs, or force down, a young branch
from its mother into the earth, make a trench of four feet every
way, fo that the layer may not be hurt by the other’s roots. Their
leave four eyes, which may reach to the bottom of the trench, that
out of them the roots may fpring ; pare away the eyes of the other
part that adjoins to the mother, that it may not procreate fuperfluous
and ufelefs fpruys : but, as to that part which is next to the ground,
and is not next to the mother, you mud not fuffer it to have more
than'' two, or, at mod, three eyes, which ought to appear above¬
ground. See that you pare away the red, which are hid under¬
ground, except the four lowermod, led the vine put forth roots upon
the furface of the ground. A vine, propagated after this manner,
will quickly drike root, and grow drong ; and the third year it mud
be fevered from its mother.

But, if you have a mind to lay the vine itfelf flat, dig very cau-
tioufly hard by its roots, fo as you may not hurt the fame ; and fup-
plant the vine, fo as you may not break it off from the root. When
you have laid it flat at its full length, and fhall fee how far it can
reach, you lhall make one furrow, into which you may let down the
whole vine : then, from that furrow, you diall make, as it were,
branches of trenches, by which the vine may be propagated, as each
of its young branches fhall require ; and fo you fhall cover them all
over with earth.

But, if the vine has but very little firm-wood, and is to be divided1
and carried into different rows, and cannot otherwife reach to the

props

582 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. VIII,

props to which it is carried, but by fpreading and dividing it, you
muft take care that you cleave it, with the fharpeft bill you can find,
in that part where it is forked ; and with the fame iron mend the cut,
if it (hall feem any where to be unequally cloven : being thus divid¬
ed, it may be diftributed into feveral rows.

Alfo that way of propagating vines, which we have found out, is
not unprofitable : If at any time a vine be wanting in a row, and the
young branch, which is laid in the bottom of the trench, is not fo
long, as that it can be wreathed back again, and railed up above the
ground, be not at all concerned at its fhortnefs ; but deprefs any
young branch whatfoever, whofe top reaches to the bottom of the
trench ; and cover it over with earth : then preferve, and fet apart
for growth, the eyes which are next to the mother herfelf, that they
may put forth firm-wood-branches from the upper part. Then, at
length, after the fpace of three years, ampute it, and reduce that part,
which you have cut off from its mother, to its own prop, and make
it the head of the vine : fill up, by little and little, the trench where
the layer is, but not in lefs than three years time : cut away the
■uppermoft roots, arid dig it frequently.

CHAP. VIII.

Of Ingraftments from Fruit-bearing V ines , in order to male

Vines fruitful.

WHEN you have a mind to ingraft a vine, cut off from their
mother fruit-bearing fprays of the heft kind, at the time when
they begin to bud, and when the wind is South. Let the fpray,
which you ufe as a graft, be taken from the top of the vine, and let it be
round, with good and frequent knots.: then leave three of the founded:
knots ; below the third eye pare, with a fharp knife, the lpace of two
inches, very thin on both fides, after the manner of a wedge, fo as
you may not hurt the pith : then cut the vine which you defign to in¬
graft, and fmooth the cut, and fo cleave it ; and put the cyons,
which you have prepared, into the cleft, as far as they are pared, fo
that the bark of the graft' may touch the bark of the vine equally.
Whatever you have ingrafted, bind it carefully with a willow, or
the bark of an elm ; and daub it over with well-wrought clay mixed
with draw, and cover the cut, and wrap it up, and bind it fo clofe,

that

Chap. VIII. 0/HU3BANDRY. 583

that neither wind nor water may be able to enter ; then put mofs over
the clay, and fo bind it again : this thing affords it moifture, and does
not fuffer it to grow dry, and wither. Below the ingraftment and the
binding, wound the vine flightly, on both Tides, with a fliarp bill,
that the moifture may rather flow out of thele wounds, than out of
the ingraftment itfelf; for too much moifture is hurtful, and does
not fufter the cyons, that are ingrafted into the flock, to take hold
of it.

Some of the antients thought proper to bore the vine, and fo put
the cyons into it, after they had pared them flightly : but we have
done this fame thing after a better manner. For, the antient augre
makes a powder like faw-duft, and, by realon of this, burns that
part which it perforates ; but the burnt part very rarely takes hold of,
and unites with the cyons, that are ingrafted into it. We, on the'
contrary, have adapted, to this fort of grafting, that which we call
the Gallican wimble : this makes an hole, but does not burn, becaufe
it does not make, as it were, a faw-duft, but (havings or parings :
therefore, when we have clean fed the hole which we have bored, we
ingraft into it the cyons which are pared on all ftdes, and fo daub it
all round : fuch an ingraftment unites and takes hold very eafily ;
therefore fee that you have the ingraftment of your vines finifhed
about the time of the Equinox. Ingraft your moift places from the
white grape, and the dry from the black.

Make your unfruitful vines fruitful after this manner : Water vines,
which yield very little fruit, with (harp vinegar mixed with allies,
and daub the flock itfelf with the fame allies. But, if any of your
vines do not bring to maturity the fruit which they make a fhew of,
but wither and dry up before the grapes grow mellow and ripe, you
may cure them, and fet them to rights after this manner : When the
berries upon the grape-ftalks are come to their natural bignefs, cut
down the vine to the very root, and daub the cut with earth, mixed
throughly with an equal quantity of fliarp vinegar, and old urine,
and water their roots with the fame ; and dig them frequently. Thefe
things make them quickly put forth firm-wood-branches, and con¬
vey juice to the grapes.

C H A P.

584

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XX.

CHAP. IX.

J~Iow a Clufler of Grapes may have Berries of fever al Kinds .

THERE is alfo a kind of ingraftment, which produces fuch
clufters of grapes, wherein there are found berries of different
kinds and colours j and this is effedted in fuch a manner as this : Take
four or five, or more rods, if you have a mind, of different kinds ;
.and, after you have carefully compared them, fo as to t?e equal to
each other, bind them all together; then infert them very dole into
an earthen tube, or into an horn, fo as they ,may ftand out a little at
both ends, and loofen and open thofe parts which fhall ftand out ;
then put them into a trench, and cover them all over with well-
dunged earth, and water them till they put forth buds. When, the
rods fhall have cohered with one another, and now, after the fpace of
two or three years, have formed an unity, or are united into one, you
fhall break the fmall tube, and cut the vine with a faw, almoft about
the middle of the flock, where they fhall appear to have united them-
ielves moft with one another, and grown the clofeft together ; and
imooth the cut, and heap up fmall earth about it, fo that it may
cover the wound three inches deep: when, out of this flock, it fhall
have put forth (hoots, fet apart for growth the two beft, pull off the
reft : fo fuch grapes will be produced, as we propofed.

But, that grapes may be produced without grape-ftones, cut a fhoot
of a vine fo, as the eyes upon it may not be hurt, and fcrape out all
the pith ; then afterwards put the parts exactly together again, as they
were before, and bind them together, fo as you may not bruife the
eyes ; and fo fet it in dunged earth, and water it : after it has begun
to put forth (hoots, dig it frequently ever and over again, and very
deep. When the vine is come to full age, it will produce fuch grapes
without grape-ftones.

CHAP.

5*5

Chap. X. Of HUSBANDRY.

CHAP. X.

How you may prune the Vines after you have gathered the

Grapes,

WHEN you have finifhed the vintage, begin prefently to prune
with the very beft and fharpeft iron-tools ; fo the cuts will be
made finooth : nor will the water be able to remain, and reft in the
vine, which, as foon as it flops, and abides long upon it, fpoils and
rots the vine, and breeds worms, and other animals, which gnaw and
confume the wood : but make the cuts round ; for they the more
quickly form a cicatrice. The fprays that are broad, old, ill-lhaped,
ugly, and crooked, cut all thefe clean away ; fucli fprays as are young,
and bear fruit, and fometimes their offspring, which you fhall think
fit for your purpofe, fet them apart for growth, if the uppermoft
part of the vine is not now in a very ftrong and thriving condition j
and preferve the arms of the vine : finifh the pruning as quickly as
poffibly you can. Such fprays as are dry and old, which cannot be
amputed with the pruning-hook, pare away with a fharp chip-ax.

Prune a weak vineyard, in lean and dry land, immediately after
the Winter-folftice; and what part you fhall not have pruned, return
to it again about the firft of February : it is not proper, that a vine or
a tree be touched with an iron-tool, from the 13th of December to
the 13th of January. When you prune a vine, make the cut be¬
tween two eyes ; for, if you cut it hard by the eye itfelf, it will re¬
ceive injury, and will not put forth any firm-wood. But let the
cicatrice always Look downward: fo it will not receive any hurt, either
from the water, or from the Sun; and it will receive the moifture
rightly. In fat land, and in a ftrong well-thriving vineyard, leave
more eyes and fruit-bearing fhoots ; in that which is poor, leave
fewer. Where-ever you fhall find an arm wanting in a vine, wound
it once or twice in that place, about the depth of one inch, with the
point of a fharp bill. Beware you do not take away the whole arm,
altho’ it be long, except it be all withered and dried up.

See that you have your new vineyard ablaqueated before the Winter-
folftice, that it may receive all the fhowers, and the flime : the fooner
you ablaqueate vines and trees, the ftronger they will be, and the
better will they thrive. But all fuch vines and trees, as are planted
on the fides of hills, and rifing grounds, mull be fo ablaqueated, that
the little ditches may be made towards the uppermoft part, hard bv

4 F the

586 . L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XII.

the flock j but that, on the lower part, fmall banks be railed higher
than thefe, that they may contain the more water and flime.

An old vineyard muft neither be ablaqueated, left the roots, which
it has towards the furface of the ground, wither and dry up 3 nor
plowed, left the roots of the vines be torn up, and broken off. Dig
it often, and equally, with hoes, and dig it deep 3 and, before the
Winter-folftice, ftrew the ground with dung and chaff ; or, when
you have ablaqueated only towards the furface all round the vine itfelf,
lay dung upon it.

CHAP. XI.

Of pampinating a Vineyard , or pulling ojf its fuperfluous

Shoots a?id Leaves .

IT is as profitable to pampinate a vineyard carefully, as to prune it
well ; for the firm-wood-branches, which have fruit upon them,
both gather ftrength, and thrive the better, and the pruning of the
following year is done more expeditioufly, and the vine alfo becomes
not fo full of fears 3 becaufe, when that which is green and tender is
plucked off the vine, it forthwith recovers, and the part grows whole
again : befides thefe things, the grapes alfo ripen the better. See that
you have your vineyard pampinated ten days before it begins to blof-
fom : take away whatever fuperfluous thing is fprung out of it; pluck
off whatever is grown out of the top or arms of the vine, provided
it has no fruit upon it: cut off the tops of the young branches or
rods, left they become luxuriant : cover the grapes, that fhall look
sowards the South, or the Weft, with their own peculiar twigs and
.\eaves, that they may not be fcorched and burnt up with the heat.

CHAP. XII.

Of digging of Vineyards .

AS foon as the clufter of grapes fhall begin to be of different co¬
lours, dig the third digging 3 and now, when it fhall have begun
to ripen, d g before noon, before it fhall begin to grow hot, and in
the afternoon, when the heat is over 3 and raife the duft : this thing
very much pireferves and defends the grapes, both from the Sun, and
from fogs. You muft neither plow nor dig clayey ground, becaufe

' it

Chap. XV. O/HUSBANDRY. 587

it grows exceeding hard, and cleaves when it is plowed or digged. It
is more advantageous to turn up the ground with hoes, than with a
plough ; the hoe turns up all the ground equally : for be Tides that,
the plough makes baulks in the ground : the oxen alfo, which plow,
break Tome parts of the young branches, and fometimes whole vines.
But there is no end of digging a vineyard ; for by how much the
oftener you (hall dig it, by fo much the greater plenty of fruit yon
fhall find.

CHAP. xnr.

To preferve the Vines from being hurt by Mildew.

IN the fpring-time, fee that you have heaps of chaff and ftraw
placed among the rows in the vineyard. When you fhall feel the
cold contrary to what is ufual in that feafon of the year, fet all the
heaps of chaff and ft raw on fire : fo the fmoak will remove the fog,
and the mildew.

CHAP. XIV.

To prevent the Ants from clhnbingyip upon the Vines .

BRUISE lupins, and mix them with the mafh of preffed olives,
and therewith daub all round the lower-part of the vine : or
boil bitumen with oil ; with this alfo touch the lower-part of the vine,
the ants will not pafs over it.

CHAP. XV.

How to prevent Rats and Vine-fretters from vexing the Vine.

VT I NES which are contiguous to buildings, are infefled by rats
and mice. To prevent this, we muft obferve, when the Moon
is full, and when fhe is in the fign of the Lion, or of the Scorpion,
or of the Archer, or of the Bull ; and we muft prune them in the
night-time with Moon-light. There is a kind of animal, which is
called a vine-fretter ; this commonly gnaws the fprigs and leaves,
while they are yet young and tender : to prevent which, after you
Jiave finifhed the pruning, anoint the pruning-hooks," with which you

4 F 2 hav«

5 8-S L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XVI.

have primed the vineyard, with the blood of a bear j or, if you have
a beaver’s {kin, as often as you (hall whet the pruning-hook, during
the time you are pruning them, wipe the edge of it with this {kin,
and fo begin to prune. Seeing we have fpoken abundantly of vines,
let us now give directions concerning plantations of trees for fupport-
ing them.

CHAP. XVI.

Of Plantations of Trees for flip port mg Vines .

r | "’’HE poplar-tree efpecially nourifhes the vine, next to this the
elm-tree, and then the alh-tree. The poplar-tree is rejected
by moft people, becaufe it has not a leaf proper for it : but that which
Rudies call the Atinian elm is the nobleft, and thrives the bed, and
has great plenty of leaves. This mud be chiefly planted in fat lands,
or even in fuch as are indifferent : but, if rugged and thirdy places
mud be planted with trees, neither the poplar- nor the elm-tree are
fo fit for this purpofe as mountain-afhes : thefe are the wild-afhes,
neverthelefs with fomewhat broader leaves than the other afh-trees :
nor do they yield a worfe leaf than elms. Goats indeed, and fheep,
feek after this leaf alfo with greater liking than any other. Therefore
let them, who have a mind to form a plantation of trees for fupport-
ing vines, make trenches four feet every way, a year before they fet
the trees : then, about the fird of March , let them fet, into the fame
trench, an elm, and a poplar-tree, or an afh-tree, that, if the elm
{hall fail, the poplar, or the afli-tree, may fupply its place : but, if
they both {hall live, let one of them be taken out, and planted in
another place.

It is proper, that trees, for fupporting vines, Ihouldbe planted at the
didance of twenty feet from each other ; for thus both the trees them-
felves, and the vines that are joined to them, will thrive and gather
drength the better, and yield better fruit ; the corns alfo, which {hall
be in the place where the trees are planted, will differ lefs injury by
their {hade. Dig frequently all round the tree which you {hall have
planted, that it may grow up the more fpeedily ; and fee you touch it
not with an iron- tool for about the {pace of three years: at the
end of thiity-fix months, you fhall form it for receiving the
vine, and cut off its fuperfluous branches, leaving every other bough

Chap. XVII. Of HUSBANDRY. 589

by turns, after the manner of deps or ladders. Every other year * ( i).
The fixth year, if it (hall then appear to be ftrong enough, you mult
match it to a vine after this manner : Leave about the fpace of one
foot from the very dock of the tree ; then having made a furrow four
feet long, and three deep, and two feet and an half broad, you mud
fuffer it, for two months at lead, to be beaten with the dorms ; then
at length, about the fird of March , take up a vine out of the nurfery.
not lei’s than ten feet long ; and prop it, and join it to the tree : do
not prune it the next year; but the third year reduce it to one young
branch or rod ; and leave a few eyes upon it, that it may not creep
to a great height, before it grow drong : then, after it has had a
large growth, didribute and range all its firm-wood-branches over all
the dories of the tree j fo neverthelefs, as you may not burden the
vine, but fet apart for bearing fruit fuch (hoots as you may depend
upon never fail, and are the dronged.

You mud be as careful to bind as to prune an arbudive- or arbour-
vine ; for in this the drength of the fruit principally confids ; and a
vine, which is tied to the tree with fad bindings, and in proper places,
holds out more years, and lives longer : therefore it is proper, that
fomebody diould follow after the pruning, and obferve that the bind¬
ings be renewed, and the vine ranged and placed in due order, upon
proper branches.

CHAR XVII.

Of Olive-yards.

THE olive-tree rejoices mod in dry hills, that are full of white
clay j but, in moid and fat fields, it produces great plenty of
boughs and leaves without fruit : but an olive-yard is better formed
from truncions than from plants. But Mago was of opinion, that the
olive-tree (hould be planted in dry places, either immediately after the
Equinox, or before the Winter-lolilice. The Hufbandmen of our
age keep to the fpring of the year, for the mod part, about the fird

(1) Ahernis annis *. After thcfe words there feems fomethirg ro be wanting in this
fentence : no doubt, the author directed fomething to be done every other year ; and if
we look ro the fifth book, cap. 6- when treating of the fame rhmg, he fays, that what¬
ever leaves fhall fpiing out of it, ought, every other yearj either to be cut away with a
knife, or bound up to the tree, or pulled off.

Of

sgo L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XVIII.

of May (j). But the trench for an olive-tree muft be four feet wide
every way ; and you muft throw ftones and gravel into the bottom of
the trench, and then throw in earth four inches deep upon them, and
then fet the little tree fo ftraight and upright into it, that that part
of it which (lands out of, and appears above the trench, may be
exactly in the middle. But you muft carefully defend the little tree
from forms by propping it, and mixing dung with the earth which
is replaced in the trench. It is proper, that olive-trees be planted at
the diftance of fix ty feet from each other, that they may have room
to grow and extend themlelves in breadth ; for fuch of them as (hoot
up in height, decay, and come to nothing prefently, and bear little
fruit.

The Lkintan olive is the beft, the Paufian is the fecond for oil,
and the Orchis for food : there are alfo the royal, and the (huttle-
like olives, which neither for oil, nor for their beautiful appear¬
ance, are fo acceptable as thole I firft mentioned. If you plant an
olive-tree in the place from whence you have digged up an oak, it
will die; becaule there are certain worms, which breed, and are brought
up, in the root of the oak; and thefe efpecially confume the olive-
plants. If, in an olive-tree, one branch thrives fomewhat better than
the reft, unlefs you cut it off, the whole tree will wither, and dry up
It is convenient to mark all the little trees with oker, before they be
tranfplanted, that, when they are planted, they may look to the fame
parts of the heavens, which they alfo looked to when they were in
the nurfery; otherwife they will fuffer, either by the cold, or the heat,
in thofe parts, which they (hall have expofed in a different place and
fituation, contrary to what they have been accuftomed to.

CHAP. XVIII.

Of confiituting an Orchard.

BE FOR E you conftitute and form an orchard, inclofe, with a
wall, or a ditch, as great an extent of ground as you (hall have
a mind to make ufe of for that purpofe, fo that there may be no
paffage, not only for cattle, but even not for a Man, except by the
door, till the plants grow up ; for if the tops of them be either broken
with the hand, or the cattle browfe them, they are fpoiled for ever.

(x) Calendas Ma'ias. Pontedera obferves here very jufUy, that the true reading Teems
to be Calendas Martias ; for Palladius diredts to plant olive-yards in the month of February ,
in temperate places: and Columella himftlf clearly enough exprefles the fame thing, lib. v.
cap. 9. viz., that, in rich and moift land, olives ought to be planted in the fpring of the
year, before they begin to bud, which they do long before the month of May.

But

Chap. XX. Of H U S B A N D R Y.

S9i

But it turns to better account, to difpofe the trees according to their
feveral kinds ; efpecially, that the weak may not be opprelfed by the
Wronger, which are neither equal to them in ftrength, nor in bignefs,,
nor grow up equally. The earth that is fit for vines, is alfo good for
trees.

CHAP. XIX.

Trenches.

DI G the trenches one year before you intend to plant your or¬
chards : fo they will be macerated with the Sun and the rain
and what you fhall let in them will foon ftrike root. But, if you
have a mind to fet your plants alfo the fame year you make the
trenches, dig the trenches at leaf! two months before; afterwards fill
them with ftraw, and fet them on fire. The broader and the more
open you make the trenches, the better, and the greater plenty of
fruit you fhall have. The trench ought to be like a fmall moveable
oven, the lower-part wider than the upper, that the roots may fpread
and extend themfclves the wider ; and that they may admit, through
the narrow mouth of the earth, lefs cold in Winter, and lefs heat in
Summer : as alfo the earth, that is gathered together into them in
fleep places in rifing grounds, is not wafhed away with the rains.
Plant the trees very thin, at confiderable difiances from each other,
that, when they giow up, they may have room where they may ex¬
tend their branches ; for if you fet them thick, you can neither low
any thing under them, nor even fo will they themfelves be fruitful,
unlefs you cut off lome of the intermediate branches ; therefore I am-
of opinion, that forty feet, and, at leafi, thirty, be left between the
rows.

CHAP. XX.

i

How you may chocje the Plants for an Orchard.

CPIOOSE and gather plants that are not lefs thick than the helve
of an hoe, llraight, fmooth, tall, without botches or gather
and with intire found bark ; thefe firike root well, and very quickly.
If you take the plants off trees, take them chiefly from thole which,
bear good fruit every year, and in great plenty : but you mu ft obfevve
to pluck the fame off the fhoulders of the trees that are oppofite to

the

592 L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XXL

the Sun-rifmg. If you fet a plant with the root, it will have an equal
growth with the other trees which you fet after you have ingrafted
them ; but an ingrafted tree is more fruitful than that which is not
ingrafted, that is, than that which is fet in branches or plants before

they are ingrafted (i).

Before you transplant the little trees, mark them with oker, or
any other thing you pleafe, that you may place them expofed to the
fame winds, to which they flood expofed before : and take care that
you tranfplant them from an higher, drier, and poorer land, into that
which is lower and flatter, moifler and fatter. Set fuch plants efpe-
cially as are three-forked ; let them Hand out and appear three feet
above the earth. If you have a mind to fet two or three little trees
in the fame trench, take care that they do not touch one another j
for fo they are confumed and killed by the worms. When you fet
the plants, put down, on the right and left of each of them, into the
very bottom of the trench, bundles of fprays, of the thicknefs of a
Man’s arm, fo as they may appear and Hand out a little above the
earth, by which you may, with very little labour, convey water in
Summer to their roots. Plant trees, or plants with roots, in Autumn,
about the 1 5th of October : fet cuttings and branches in the Spring,
before the trees begin to bud. But, left the moth be troublefome
to fig-tree-plants, cover with earth, in the bottom of the trench,
a cutting of the maflich-tree, fo that the top of it may look down¬
ward.

CHAP. XXI.

When the Fig-tree muft he planted.

PLANT not the fig-tree during the colds ; it loves places ex¬
pofed to the Sun, and fuch as abound in pebbles, gravel, and
lometimes rocky ground: it foon takes root and grows up in this kind
of land, if you make the trenches large and fit for them. The feveral
kinds of fig-trees, altho’ they differ in the tafle, fhape, and quality
of their fruit, yet they are planted after one and the fame manner,
but in lands of a different quality. In places that are cold, and that
are watery during the Autumn, plant the early-ripe fig-trees, that you
may gather their fruit before the rains begin ; in warm places plant

(1) Si cum radice plant avi pofueris : this fentence does not feem very plain 5 bar, if it
is not corrupted, the meaning of it feems to be. That the plant of a fruic-tree, fet with
a root, will grow equally well with fuch as have been irgrafeed before they were fee in
".he orchard, but they will not be equally fruitful.

2 Winter-

Chap. XXII. Of HUSBANDRY. 593

Winter-figs. But, if you have a mind to make a fig-tree to be late
in ripening, which is not naturally late, when the unripe figs are very
fmall, fhake the fruit off the tree ; it will again produce a fecond
fruit, and will defer to bring it to maturity till the Winter is far
advanced. Sometimes alfo it is an advantage, when the trees have
begun to put forth their leaves, to cut off the uppermoft tops of the
fig-tree with a very fharp iron-tool ; fo the trees will both be firmer,
and bear more fruit. It will always be of great advantage, as foon as
the fig-tree fhall begin to put forth her leaves, to dilute oker with
the lees of oil, and to pour it, with human dung, to the root of it;
this thing makes greater plenty of fruit, and makes the fig plumper
and fuller, and of a more beautiful appearance.

CHAP. XXII

Of planting Nuts.

ABOUT the time that the Star ArSlurus rifeth, or about the fir ft
of February , plant the almond, which begins to bud the fi r ft
of any : it requires warm, hard, and dry land j for if you fet this
kind of nut in places of a different nature, it will prefently rot. Be¬
fore you fet the nut, fieep it in water and honey fodden together, but
not too fweet : fo it will yield fruit of a fweeter tafie when it is grown
lip ; and, in the mean time, it will grow the better, and the more
fpeedily. Place three nuts in a triangle, and let the fharper part of
the nut be undermoft, becaufe from thence it puts forth its roots; and
let one nut be, at lead, an hand-breadth difiant from the other ; and
let it incline fomewhat towards the Weft. Every nut puts forth one
root, and creeps forth with a fingleftalk; when the root comes to
the bottom of the trench, being checked by the hardnefs of the ground,
it is bended back again ; and, extending itfelf, fends forth other roots
after the manner of branches.

You may make an almond and a filbert become a Farentinian nut,,
after this manner : In the trench wherein you defign to plant the nut,
place fmall earth, about half a foot deep, and there fet a ftioot of
fennel-giant j when the fennel-giant is grown up, cleave it, and hide
the almond, or the filbert, without a fhell in the pith of the fame,
and cover it over with earth : do this before the fil'd: of March , or
between the feventh and the fifteenth of March. You may plant the
walnut, the pine-apple, and the chefnut, at this fame time.

4 G C H A P.

594

L. J. M. COLUMELLA Chap. XXV.

CHAP. XXIII.

Of planting the Pomegranate.

pomegranate is rightly planted in the Spring, always till the
firft of April ; and, if it (hall bring forth acid fruit, or not fo
fweet as you would have it, you fhall cure and make it better in this
manner : Moiften the roots of it with ftale human urine, human dung,
and hogs dung. This thing will both make the tree fertile, and, for
the firft years, makes the fruit have a winy tafte and flavour ; and
afterwards makes it fweet alfo, and tender, and without any woody
fubftance in it. We have mixed a very little Cyrenian lafer with wine,
and fo have anointed the uppermoft tops of the tree with it : this
thing corrected the tartnefs of the apples. If you place three ftones
at the very root of the tree when you plant it, they will be a remedy
to prevent the apples from burfting upon the tree. But if you have a
tree that is already planted, fow fquills at the root of the tree. You
may prevent this another way : When the apples are already ripe, be¬
fore they burft, twift the ftalks on which they hang ; by this method
you may alfo keep them the whole year.

CHAP. XXIV.

Of the Pear-tree,

PLANT pear-trees in Autumn, before the middle of Winter, fo
that there may remain at leaft twenty-five days to the Winter-
iolftice ; and, that they may be fertile, ablaqueate them very deep,
when they are already grown up to their full growth, and cleave the
trunk hard by the very root, and into the clift drive a wedge, made
of the heart of pine-wood, and there leave it ; then, after you have
filled up the ablaqueation, fcatter afhes upon the earth.

CHAP. XXV.

Of planting Apples,

PLANT Summer-apples, quinces, fervice-apples, plums, after
the middle of Winter till the 13th of February . You will be in
the right to plant the mulberry, from the 13th of February till the

vernal

Chap. XXVI. Of HUSBANDRY. 595

vernal Equinox. Plant the carob, which fome call j tepa.Tiovy and
then the peach, before the middle of Winter, during the time of
Autumn. If almond-trees bear but very little fruit, bore the tree,
and drive a Hone through it, and fo let the bark of the tree grow
over it. But it is proper, about the firft of March , to place, in a
regular manner, branches of all thofe kinds in your orchards, all in
beds raifed in the different quarters thereof, where the earth is both
well manured and dunged then, when they are grown up, care mud;
be taken, that, while their little branches are tender and young, they
be, as it were, pampinated ; and let the plants be reduced to one ftetn
the firfb year ; and, when the Autumn comes on, it will be expedient
to pluck off all their leaves, before the cold nips and dries up their
tops ; and fo put, as it were, bonnets upon them, with thick reeds,
which have their knots intire at one end ; and fo defend the rods, that
are yet young and tender, from the cold, and the frofts : then, after
the twenty-fourth month, whether you fhall have a mind to tranf-
plant them, and fet them regularly in rows, or whether you defign to
ingraft them, you may do either the one or the other fafely enough.

CHAP. XXVI.

Of ingrafting Trees .

EVERY kind of cvon may be ingrafted into every kind of tree,
if it is not unlike, in its bark, to that into which it is ingrafted :
but, if it brings forth fruit alfo at the fame time, it may be ingrafted
very fafely, without any fcruple. The antients have taught us three
kinds of ingraftments : one, which, after the tree is cut and cloven,
receives the cyons which are inferted into it ; a fecond, which, after
the tree is cut, admits the graffs between the bark and the wood ;
both which kinds are proper for the Spring feafon : the third, which
Hufbandmen call emplajiration , receives the buds themfelves, with a
little bark, into a part of itfelf, from which the bark is pulled off ;
this kind is proper for the Summer. When we come to explain the
method of performing thefe ingraftments, we (hall alfo teach you
another invented by us.

Ingraft all trees as foon as they fhall begin to put forth their buds,
when the Moon is increafing j but ingraft the olive-tree about the
vernal Equinox, till the 13 th of April. Whatever tree you have a

4 G 2 mind

596 L. ]. M.COLUMELLA Chap. XXVI.

mind to ingraft from, and from which you are about to take cyons
for ingrafting, fee that it be young and fruitful, and with frequent
knots and joints ; and, when the buds fhall firft fwell, choofe them
from off fmall branches of one year old, which fhall look to the Sun-
riling, and are found : let the grafts be forked, and of the thicknets
of the little finger. Cut the tree you fhall have a mind to ingraft
very carefully, with a faw, in that part which is faireft and fmoo theft ‘
and without any fear ; and you muft lake care, that you hurt not the
bark : then, when you (hall have cut the dock, fmooth the cut
with a fharp iron-tool ; then put an iron- or ivory- wedge down be¬
tween the bark and the wood three inches at lead; ; but do it very
gently, left you hurt or break the bark : afterwards pare the cyons,
which you defign to ingraft, on one fide, with a fharp pruning-hook, as
low as you have put down the wedge ; but fo as you may not hurt the
pith, nor the bark, on the other fide of it : when you have prepared
the cyons, pull out the wedge, and prefently put down the grafts
into thofe holes, which are made by the wedge driven in between the
bark and the wood. But put down the grafts by that end where you
have pared them, fo that they may hand out fix inches from the
tree: but fallen two or three fmall branches in one tree, provided
there be no lefs a fpace than of four inches between them : do thele
things according to the bignefs of the" tree, and the goodnefs of the
bark. When you have put down all the cyons which the tree will
fuffer, bind up the tree raft with the- bark of; an elm- or a willow-
tree : afterward daub all the wound over with well-wrought clay
mixed with draw, and fill up the fpace which is between the cyons
fo far, that the grafts may Hand out two inches : put mofs over the
clay, and bind it fo fall to it, that it may not be wafted and confumed
by the rain.

If you have a mind to ingraft a very fmall tree, cut it off near to
the earth, fo that it may ftand one foot and an half out of the ground :
then, when you have made the amputation, fmooth the wound care¬
fully, and cleave the middle of the ftock a little way, with a fharp
bill or paring-knife, fo that there may be a cleft of three inches ; then
thruft a wedge into it, as far as it will bear it; and put down cyons
into it, pared on both fides, fo as you may make the bark of the
graft even with the bark. of the tree. When you have carefully fitted
the cyons, pull out the wedge; then bind up the tree, as I faid above,
and daub it ; then heap up the earth about the tree, as high as the
graft itfelf;. this thing will very much defend it from the wind and
the heat.

The

Chap. XXVir. Of HUSBANDRY. 597

The third kind of ingraftment, fince it is very nice and delicate, is
not proper for every kind of tree ; and, for the mod: part, thofe trees
admit of fuch an ingraftment, which have a moift, juicy, and ftrong
bark, as the fig-tree ; for it both yields great plenty of milk, and has
a drong bark; therefore it admits exceeding well of being ingrafted
in fuch a manner. From whatever tree you defign to take the grafts,
in it leek out for the young, fair, and l'mooth branches; then, in
thele, obferve the eye which fhall have a godly appearance, and a
certain hope of producing a bud : mark it all round two inches fquare,
that the eye may be in the middle, and fo make an incifion round it
with a lharp penknife; and take off the bark carefully, that you may
not hurt the eye: then, into whatever tree you have a mind to in-'
graft it, choofe the faired and the fmoothed branch of the fame ;
and make a round incifion in the bark of the fame bignefs, and un¬
bark the wood ; and, into that part which you have laid bare, fit, and
join exactly, that eye which you have taken from the other tree, fo
that the fcuteheon may agree to, and fit the part where you have
made the rounded incifion. When you have done thefe things, bind
it well all round, fo as you may not hurt it ; then daub the' joinings
and the bands with clay, leaving a fpace by which the eye may freely
put forth its bud. If the tree you have graded have any fhoots or
upper branches, cut all away, that there may be nothing whereby the
juice may be diverted and withdrawn,; or to which it may be more
lerviceable, than to the graft itfelf; after one-and-twenty days unbind
the fcuteheon : the olive-tree lucceeds very well with this kind of in¬
graftment. We have already taught you that fourth kind of ingraft¬
ment, when we treated of vines ; therefore it is fuperfluous to repeat,
in this place, the method of terebration, which we have already
deferibed.

CHAP. XXVII.

"Thai Cyons of all Kinds may be grafted upon all Sorts of

Trees whatfoever .

BUT feeing the antients denied, that all kinds of cyons might be
graded upon any tree whatfoever, and ellabliihed, as it were,
into a certain law that limitation and determination of this matter,
which we made ufe of a little before, viz. That thofe cyons only
could coalefce, which in their bark, and rind, and fruit, are like to

thofe

598 L, J.M.COLUMELLA Chap. XXVIII.

thofe trees upon which they are grafted, we thought it neceflary to
inquire into, and confute this erroneous opinion, and to deliver to
pofterity a method, whereby all kinds of cyons may be grafted upon
all forts of trees whatfoever. And, that we may not weary our read¬
ers with too long a difcourfe, we fhall fubjoin one example, as it
were, by following which, every body may graft" any kind of cyon
they pleafe upon all forts of trees.

Dig a trench, of four feet every way, at fuch a diftance from an
olive-tree, that the utmoft branches of the olive-tree may reach to it;
then fet in the trench a young fmall fig-tree, and take great care, that
it may grow ftrong, and fmooth, and be of a goodly appearance.
After the fpace of three or five years, when it has had a large-enough
growth, bend down that branch of the olive-tree that fhall appear to
be the goodlieft: and the ftnootheft of any, and bind it to the flock of
the fig-tree ; and fo, having cut away the reft: of the fmall branches,
leave only thefe tops which you defign to graft": then cut the fig-tree,
and fmooth the wound, and cleave it in the middle with a wedge ;
then pare the tops of the olive-tree on both fides, as they join to, and
grow on their mother, and fo fit them exactly to the cleft of the
fig-tree j and take out the wedge, and bind them carefully together,
that they may not be pulled away by any force whatfoever : fo, in
the fpace of three years after this, the fig-tree will coalefce with the
olive : and then at length, in the fourth year, when they are well
united together, you muft cut off the fmall olive-branches from their
mother, as if they were layers. After this manner all kinds of cyons
are grafted upon all forts of trees..

CHAP. XXVIII.

Of the Cythifus, or Shrub-trefoil,

IT is very necefiary to have great plenty of cythifus , or fhrub-tre~
foil, (which the Greeks call £g'a, or xctpvn c», or Tgvqef) becaufe
it is exceeding ufeful for hens, bees, iheep, goats alfo, and all forts
of cattle whatfoever, which grow foon fat with it j and it makes the
ewes yield abundance of milk : as alfo, becaufe you may ufe this
fodder green for eight months, and afterward you may ufe it dry.
Moreover, it quickly takes and grows in any kind of land, tho’ ex¬
ceeding lean ; and bears with any ill ufage, without fuftaining any
hurt. Yea, if women are afflidted with fcarcity or want of milk,
this fhrub-trefoil muft be dried and fteeped in water, when it has
i ' foaked

Chap. XXIX. Of HUSBANDRY. S99

foaked throughly the whole night ; the day following, three hemince
of the juice that is fqueezed out of it, muft be mixed with a little
wine, and fo given them to drink : thus they themfelves flaall enjoy a
good date of health, and their children thrive and grow ftrong with
plenty of milk.

But the cythifus , or fhrub-trefoil, may be Town either in Autumn,
about the i yth of October, or in the Spring. After you have manured
the earth well, make it into quarters or beds, in the manner of a
garden ; and there fow the feed of your fhrub-trefoil in Autumn, as
if it were garden-bafil-feed : then in the Spring fet the plants regu¬
larly, that they may be the fpace of four feet every way, diflant one
from another. If you have no feed, fet the tops of the fhrub-trefoil
regularly in the Spring : heap up dunged earth about them : if it does
not rain foon, water them during the next fifteen days; then, after
the fpace of three years, cut it, and give it to the cattle,. Fifteen
pound-weight of it, green, is abundantly enough for an horfe, and
twenty pounds for an ox ; and for other cattle, in proportion to their
ftrength [it may alfo be planted in branches about the month of Sep¬
tember ]. If you give it dry, give a lefs quantity of it, becaufe it has
greater firength ; and deep it firft in water, and, when you have
taken it out, mix it with flraw or chaff.. Cut down the fhrub-trefoil,
which you defign for dry forage, about the month of September ,
when its feed begins to grow big ; then keep it a few hours in the
Sun, till it fade ; then dry it in the fhade, and fo lay it up fafe.

CHAP. XXIX.

Of the TFillow-tree , of Broom , cmd of the Reed.

PLANT the willow-tree and broom in the Spring, about the firft
of March , when the Moon is in her increafe. The willow-tree
requires moift places, but broom fuch as are dry : neverthelefs, it is
very convenient to fow them both about a vineyard, becaufe they yield
bands proper for the young branches of vines. The beft way of plant¬
ing reeds is by fetting their roots, which fome Call bulbs, and others
call eyes. As foon as you have paftinated the ground with the two-
feet-deep-fpade, having cut the root of the reed with a lharp bill, fet
it when it is juft going to rain. There are fome, who lay the intire
reeds flat in the ground, becaufe, being thus planted, they put forth
reeds from all their joints. But, commonly, this kind produces a reed

that

6oo L. J. M. CO LUMELL A, &c. Chap. XXX.

that is (lender and low, and which (bon decays : therefore that way
of planting them, which we firft pointed out and explained to von,
is the bed. But my opinion is, that every year, as foon as you have
cut down the reeds, you (liquid dig the place deep and equally, and
fo water it.

*T ,M— ■■ ■ ■.■■■■" '»t ■ - ■■ ■*! ■■■■. - /■ " ■ - * — _ -

CHAP. XXX,

Of the Violet , a?id the Rofe.

W’Hoever is about to raife the. violet, let him. reduce into beds, 01
borders, ground that is well dunged, and paginated at leaft
one foot deep; and fo let him have his plants, of one year’s growth,
let in fmall trenches, of one foot dimenfion, before the 'firft of March .
But the feed of the violet is fown, like that of potherbs, in beds, at
two different feafons, in the Spring, or in Autumn ; and it is culti¬
vated after the fame manner as the other potherbs are, that it be weeded,
that it be farcied, and that fometimes it.be watered alfo. It is proper
that the rofe-bufh be fet at the fame time as the violet, either in fhrubs,
or fuckers, or in fhoots, or cuttings (i), all along furrows of one foot
dimenfion ; but it mud be digged every year before the firft of March ,
and pruned here-and-there. When cultivated after this manner, it
lafts for many years.

(l) Pofam fruticibus ac fur cults ; in the oldeft editions we read fruSiibus & furculis :
and Pal/adius, fpcaking of the fame thing, has virgultis <& femine ; fo that, confidering
that P alia dins has always his eye upon Columella., it may teem probable, that the true
reading here ought to b efruftibus, which will anfwer to femine , as furculis to virgultis.
But, as Coltmella is not treating here fo much of the different ways of propagating the
rofe-bufh, as of the way and tmnner of fetting and difpofing it, probably he only means
what is expreffed in the tranflation ; and there feems no occafion to alter the text as it
npw (lands.

\

F / N I S.

4

I

E X.

A

Blaqueation of Trees, what,
to be performed
Ablaqueated 'vine, how

Agriculture. See Husbandry.
Alijfanders , when to be fown'

. _ — and how to pickle them

Almond-tree , the time for planting it
Aminean vines, how to make them

and when
Page 1 68
to be pruned
170

49 2
568
246
fruitful

>3°
248

Apple-trees, their different forts, £2 c.

Apples of all forts, how to preferve them 5 1 5

, _ _ and -how to dry them in the Sun 5 r 8

- honey-apples, and feveral other, how to

preferve them, £2c. 550, and c, 94

Andromeda, a Conftellation, when rifes, £2c.

47 5

Ants , how to prevent their climbing up upon
trees 587

Apris, the conftitution of the weather, and
the work to be done, throughout the whole
month 467

Aquarius, when the Sun enters this Sign 460
Argo, the Ship, when rifes, £27. 465

Aries, the Ram ; when the Sun paifes into
this Sign, £2c. 467

Artichokes, the feveral forts, and when to be
planted 436, 490

Affes, their chara&ers and forts, how to manage
them, £27. 300 ,etfeq.

A/paragus, when to be fown, its Culture 493
Atlantides, who they were, £27. 422

Augujl, the conftitution of the weather, and
what work to be done throughout the
month 474

B.

BAiliff,. his chara&er 40

- his qualifications, and the feveral

parts of his office 450, et feq.

- - . his whole conduft and behaviour 455

Barley,, its feveral forts, and of the land pro¬
per. for it 70

Bams, their fixation, ftrufture, £s7. Page

34, et feq.

Bafil, when to be fown, £27. ^ I

Beans, of the time and manner of lowing
them, and of threfhing and winnowin«-

them 73 * 75

— - ■ ■ when to be farcied ' 46.2

- when to be fown, how dunged, £27.

481

Bees, of their feveral forts, and which beft 385

■ - of their paftures 3 35

— of chufing feats for them jg0

- of beehives of feveral forts, and how to

place them 392 , et feq.

- of purchaftng, and taking them 304

•— - of the king of the bees 400

— . of increafing their number 404

■ - of putting them up in hives, and hinder¬

ing their efcape

— -- ■ of remedies for their diftempers 403 .
- of their bulinefs throughout the year,

and how their Overfeers ought to managp
them

Beets, when to be fown, (jfc. 437,

Bill, or pruning-hook, its figure, (sic.

Brine, or pickle, how to make it
Brine, or fait water, for preferving wine
Broom, of the foil proper for it
— and how to cultivate it

— - how and when to plant it

Bulbs, of their nature and quality
Bull, his form, lhape and age, £27.

407

493
192

51 1
533

202

203

599
424
280 et feq.

c.

CAbbage, or Colwort, its different, forts,.

- and when to be planted and

tranfplanted 427, 489

Calijlo, a Conftellation 462.

Calves, medicines for killing worms in them 284

- how to caftrate them, £27. 285-

Cancer, when fets, and when the Sun enters
into this Sign 47!,

Cam's major, a Conftellation, when fets 469,
Caper-bujb, its culture, £27. 496

Capra, a bright Star 469.

H h . h .h Lap/ir

INDEX.

Capricornus, one of the twelve Signs, when
the Sun enters it. Page 483

C aerification, what it fignifies 474

Cafiepea, a Conllellation, when fets, lAc. 478
Cajlrating cattle, when the proper time

„ 467
Cattle , of reviewing of them, &e. 261

— - - of fhutting up wild cattle in parks,

We. 281

Cellars for wine, oil, lAc. how to be fituated 36

Centaurus , a Conllellation, when riles 469

Centuria , a certain meafure of land, &c. 2 1 o

Cepheus, a Conllellation, when fets 472

Cbetfe , how to make it 324

- how to preferve it 518, 544

Chervil, when to be fown 403

C befnut-trtes, and of chefnut- tree-groves 204

Chiches, See. when to fow them. 71

Chicklings, when to fow them, &c. 83

Cicania, a machine for meafuring the depth,

and trying the level of trenches, its de-

feription and ufe 145

Clima, a fuperficial meafure, what 208

C arena borealis, the northern Crown, when

fets _ 472

Cough, how to cure it in oxen 270

- - how to cure it in horfes 293

Cow, her form and lhape 280

Crater, the Cup, a Conllellation, when it

riles 464

Cucumbers, their feveral forts, when to be

fown,fcfc. . 444,494

Cuttings of vines, how long they ought to be

J54

■ how to be cut and lopped 1 7 1

and when to be put upon the frame

17 3

Cyons, how to graft all kinds upon all forts of
trees 597

Cyti/us, or Ihrub-trefoil, when to fow it

252, 598

D,

DEcember, the State of the weather, and
of the work to be done in it 482

Delphinus, when riles and fets 46 1

Digging of Vineyards after planting them 1 74

- how many diggings netelfary,’ ts'e.

196

Dittander, when to fow it 493

Digs, their feveral forts proper for husband-
Hie n * ^ 2

- their difeafes and cures 336

— •— how to care the bite of a mad dog in

»Kffn ‘a-?

Ducks, of breeding and bringing them up, fjfe.

Page 369

Dung, the feveral forts, how to be made,
and when to be applied, & c. 90, et feq.

Dunging land, the proper time for it 59
Dunghills, how to be prepared 36

Dung, how man y modii make a load 481

E

dunged

Agle, a Conllellation, when it rifes 481
Earth, not affedted with barrennefs ;
but its not producing fruit, man’s fault

1, it Jeq ,

not grows old, nor wears out, if

47

how it ought to be paftinated 140
Eggs, when hens begin today, of fetting and
hatching them 347

- how to preferve chickens when hatched359

Elecampane, when to be fown, &c. 491

- how to pickle and preferve it 550

Elms, plantations of them for fupporting

vines j of their feveral forts ; how to plant,
cultivate, and form them for vines 225

Emplajlration, what it fignifies 250

Endive, when to be fown 490

F.

FAmily, the feveral offices belonging to the
Mailer 37

February, the Hate of the weather, and the
work to be done 463

Fenugreek 8 8

Fever in oxen, how to cure it 269

Fig-trees, their feveral forts, and when to plant
them 244, 592

Figs their different forts, and when to gather
them 446

- how to dry them, fs'e. 519

Fi/h-ponds, and the feveral forts of fifh to be
kept in them, and how to feed them

371, etfeq.

Flies molefling horfes, how to prevent it 29;
Fodder, its feveral forts 80

Foot meafure among the Romans 208

Frames for vines, how high, &c. 173

. _ when of reeds, how to be made

176, etfeq.

G.

G Ardens, of their Culture, in verfe 418

- foil proper for them, with marks

A a good foil 4I9

Gardens,

I N D

Garden*,- of their fituation and ornaments

Page 420

. - when to be delved, and watered 421

- - of the flowers to be planted in them

42+

■ and of the times of gathering them

450, et feq.

■ ■ of feveral fuperflitious rites ufed by the
antients, to preferve their gardens 44 1 , et feq.

Garden , in profe, of inclofures proper for
them, &c. 485

- - of their fituation 486

- of trenching and preparing the ground

486, etfeq.

- of the things proper to be fown in
them, both in Spring and Autumn 487

- - of things to be fown every month of

the year 488

Garlicky the proper time for fowing it, ffc.

488

Garum, how to make it 296

Geefe, of breeding, feeding, and bringing them
up, of their laying, hatching, &c. 366

Gemini, the Twins, one of the twelve Signs;

when the Sun enters into this Sign 470

Goats, how to choofe them, iyfc. 321

Gourds , when to fow, and how to cultivate
them 494

Grapes, indications of their being ripe, and fit
to be gathered ; and preparations for
gathering them 476

— - ■ — how to put them up, arid keep them
in pots 544

- . how to preferve them hanging on

the tree 546

Grazing cattle , an antient and profitable occu¬
pation 225, et feq .

Griping of the guts in oxen, its cure, Ofc. 268

H.

HAlcyon days, when and why fo called

464

Hay, when to be cut down, and how managed

Hemp, when to be fown, &c. 78

Hens, of their feveral kinds, and which are
bell, &c. 34.0

- ■ how to contrive and make an houfe
proper for them 344

- ■ of food proper for them 346

* - - of cramming and fattening them 354

Hens, Numidian, ruftic, ijfc. 365

Herbs what, and when to be gathered ; and
how to pickle them for every leafon 512

E X.

Hidebinding, in oxen, how to cure it Page

272

Hives, when to be caflrated 413

Holidays, what things lawful, and what not
to be done therein 1 o 1

Honey, when and how to make it 412

Hoofs and horns of oxen, how to be cured
when hurt or broken 275

Horfes, their feveral forts 286

- of their temper, manners., and ihape

290

— ■ ■ of their difeafes, and medicines pro¬
per for them 29!

Houfhold furniture, its diftribution, iA c. 506
Husbandry, the advantages of it beyond many
other arts 3

— - the difadvantages under which it

labours +

. - of the great men among the Ro¬
mans, who applied themfeh es to it 5

— - . the difadvantages of neglefting it 8

• - the knowledge nect IT try to make a

complete Hulbandman 9

• - motives and encouragements to the

ftudy of it it

— - rulesanddireftions for hiscondudt 14

- the authors, Greek and Latin, who

have treated of it 15, et feq.

- - implements of Hulbandry, and their

diftribution 506

Hyades, when they fet, &c. 468

J" Anuary, of the ftate of the weather, arid
the work to be done throughout the
month 459

lmpofumes in oxen, how cured 270

Inclofures for cattle, how to make them 282
Ingrafting vines, and preferving the ingraft-
ments, and of the feveral forts of ingraft-
ings ^ 1 97

Ingrafting trees, is c. 250

Interfering in horfes, its cure 294

Jugerum, a meafure of land, its extent, and
its parts and divifions 210

June, of the ftate of the weather, and the
work to be done every day 47 1

K.

Kids, certain Stars, when they rife, £3',-.

476

II hh h *

I N D

L.

LAbourers, how many days work to a ju-
gerum of land according to the foil, and
different forts of corn, isle. Page 84, 8 7
Lambs, directions concerning them 310

Lamenefs in oxen, how cured 271

Land, its lituation, and qualities 19

• - of the things to be confidered before it

be purchafed 21

— - of its wholfomenefs, and the way to

difcover its bad qualities 25

• - of the feveral forts of land, and dif¬
ferent foils and fituations 49

- - of draining it, and clearing it of wood

and hones 5 1

— how to diftinguilh good from bad
land 5 3

— - - of the price of land proper for vine¬
yards 1 20

- - of its feveral forms, lhapes, and di-

menfions, and how to meafure it 213

Layers , how to be managed 74

Leech, if an ox or horfe fwallows it, how to
remove it, isle. 279

Leeks, when to be fown, and their different
forts 49 2

Lentils, when to fow them, isle. 75

Lepus, the Hare, a Conftellation, when fets 58 1
Lettice, its different forts, when to be planted
and tranfplanted, isle. 432, 489

- how to pickle it 514

Libra, one of the twelve Signs, when fets 468
Linfeed, how, where, and when to be fown 76
Lungs ulcerated in oxen, isle, how to cure
them 273

M.

MAnor-boufe, or villa, directions conqern-
ing it 27

■ - of its lituation, difpofition, parts.

conveniences, isle. 31 , et feq.

March, of the ftate of the weather, and the
work to be done, in 'his month 465

Mares, of putting them to the horfe, isle.

286, et feq.

• - - of madnefs incident to them 297

Maji, proper for feeding cattle, isle. 480
May, of the ftate of the weather, and the
work to be done, in this month 469

Mead, how to make it 517

Meadows, how to make and cultivate them

<34, et J'cq.

E X.

Meadows, when to cleanfe them, and to flint
them up from cattle Page 461

Meafurcs of liquids, feveral of them explained

1 1 3

Meafures fuperficial, and of length, feveral
forts 207, et feq .

Medic, or lucern, its nature and Culture, and
when to fow it, isle. 81

Mildew, how to preferve vines from being
hurt by it 387

Milk, how to make it four. Vide Oxygal.
Minerva, her feall, when celebrated 466
Mint, when to fow it, its culture 492

Mifcellcny, &c. how and when to fow it, its
Culture 82

Modius, a Roman meafure of dry things, ex¬
plained 64

Money, the intereft paid for it amongft the
Bo mans I 22

Mules, of chufing and managing them 297

- - of medicines proper for them 301

Muff, of boiling it into a certain quantity, to
make rob <f grapes, isle. 826

- how to keep it always fweet, as if it

were new 536

Muftard-feed, when to fow it 490

—————how to make muftard 567

N.

NAuf eating, in horfes, isle, and its cure

290

Navews, when to fow them, their Culture,

bV- . . 78, 495

Neck, fwelling of it in oxen, its cure 273
Neighbours, the mifehief of bad ones 22

November, the ftate of the weather, and the
work to be done in it 480

Nurferies for olive-yards, how to form them

239

- for vineyards in general, isle. 57 z

Nut-tree, Ta resit ini an, how to be planted 246
Nuts, the feafon for planting them 593

O.

OAts, how and when to fow them 201
Oltober, of the ftate of the weather,
and the work to be done in it 478

Oil, after what manner to be made, and of
every thing neceflary for that purpofe 338

- of gleucine oil 564

— - of oil for ointments 565

Olive-trees their feveral forts, manner of Cul¬
ture, nurferies, isle. 236 et feq.

Olive ,

INDEX.

Gliv >ts, how to pickle them Page 553, £36
- ■■ how to make a marmeladc of olives

557

Olive-yards , Sec. 589

Onions, when to Cow them, and how to cul¬
tivate them 494

- and how to pickle them 51 5

Orchards, how to conftitute them, (Ac. 590

- - how to choofe plants of trees for

them 591

Order and method, the advantages of it 525
Orrach, when to fowit 492

Ojiers, their feveral forts, and dire&ions con¬
cerning them 201

Oxen, directions for choofing, purchafing, and
breaking them, and how to feed and manage
them, and of their difeales and cures 25 7 to

272

of yoking them for plowing, (Ac. 54

et feq.

- of food proper for them throughout the

whole year 484

Oxygal, how to make it 513

P.

P

Alate, fsvelling of it in oxen, and its cure

273

49 8
and the

Palmer-worms, how to deftroy them
Pampinating quickfets and cuttings,

proper feafon for it 1 74

Pampination, how a vineyard is to be pampi-
nated I96

- - - the proper time for it 167

Parks, how to make them, and (hut up wild
cattle in them 380

Parjley, when to fow it, (Ac. 491

Parjnep, when to fow it, (A c. 491

Pajiems of oxen, their cure when hurt 273

Pajlurings in and about the manor-houfe 338
Peaches, from whence firft brought, (Ac. 446

Peacocks, how to bring them up, of their eggs,
fetting, young, (Ac. 361

Pears, how to preferve them 5 16

Pear-trees, their different forts 247

. — - when to plant them 594

Peas, the time of fowing them, (Ac. 73

Pegafus, a Conftellation, when it riles, {Ac. 465
Pigeons, wild and tame, and pigeon-houfes, ( A c.

c. 555

Pifces , the 1 2th Sign of the Zodiac, £3 c. 464
Pitch , Brutian, how made 524

. - liquid, or tar, for preferving wine, how

to be prepared 530

— — of feveral other forts of pitch for the fame
purpofe 532

Plants of vines, from what parts of the vine tl
be taken Page 133

- - - - of the feveral aiflances to b£

obferved in planting them, {Ac. 217

Pleiades, when they fet, {Ac. 467

Ploughman, his office, and how to manage the
ofcen 5 (5

Procyon or Antecanis , when it rifes 473

Propping , how a vineyard fhould be propped

172

— - and how to prop, and put a vine on

a frame 193

Props for vines, their feveral forts 20 1

Provijiors and ltores, how to be managed, and
where to be depofited, {Ac. 504

Pruning, when the beft time to prune a vine

170

- how a young vineyard fhould be

pruned 181

Pruning-knife or bill, its figure, {Ac. 192

Pulfe, its different forts 62,

- what forts hurtful to land, and what be¬
neficial ' gg

- of the foil proper for different forts 7 1

Pulverization of vines what, and how to be
performed 47 5

QUickfets, of vines, how to be managed as
to planting, pruning, pampinating and
tranfplanting them 170 et feq,

R.

RAdiJh, when to be fown, {Ac. 494

Raijins, of the Sun, how to be dried,
{Ac. 3 20

Rams, how to choofe them, and of the time of
admitting them , (Ac. 3 oS

Rats, how to prevent their hurting vines 587
Reaping, when to begin it, ■(Ac. and of reaping-
inffruments 98, et feq.

Reeds, how to plant and cultivate them 203
— — — and when, (Ac. cq<\

Rob of Grapes. See Mu/1.

Rofe-bufh, when to plant it 600

Rue, when to fowit, its Culture, (Ac. 492

S.

SAgittarius, when fets, (Ac. 464

Sar cling, what, and when to be per¬
formed 84

Sa

r Cling,

I N D

Sarcling , to what forts of corn to be performed,
fjfc. Page 85

Salt, how to toaft it for putting it into wine

529

Sallets, of eafy and quick digeflion 569

Savory, its Culture, &c. 492

Scab in horfes, how to cure it 294

Scab in oxen, how to cure it 272

Scorpio, when the Sun enters this Sign 479
Seeds, the different forts to be fown on corn-
lands, and of the feed-time 60, et feq .

. - directions how to chufe and cure feeds

68

- of the quantity of feveral feeds fufficient

for a j tiger wn of land 478

Serpentarius, a Conftellation, when fets, (s'c.

741

Serpents, isc. how to cure their bite 276
Sefamum, when to fow it 77

Sheep, of buying and managing them, &c. 304

— — of covered fheep 3 1 3

— - of their difeafes and remedies, &c. 315

- Tarentinian fheep, how to manage

them 5 1 3

Shoots, or plants, for nurferies of vineyards,
how to choofe them, and of the quality of
the ground where they are to be planted, of
the feafon for planting them, and how to
cultivate them 573, et feq.

Shoulders of oxen, how to cure them when
fprained 273

Sierret-roots, how to pickle them 568

Slaves, their fize, and plight of body, and the
work to be affigned to each of them 44
So/Jlice in winter, when, &c. 483

Sorb- apples, how to preferve them 520

Sowing, trimeflrian, when, l£c. 67

Stables for cattle, how to be made, &c. 282

et J'eq.

Stallion, of his age, and how to fatten him,
(S'c. 2S8, et feq.

Summer, when it begins, £ffc. 470

Swine, their feveral kinds 326

- of their difeafes and remedies 329

- of callrating them 331

Swine s-fiefh, how to fait it 565

T.

rJlnrus, the Bull, one of the 12 Signs,
when the Sun enters into it 462

7 'eels , how to keep and feed them 369

Thre/hing-Jloor, 7 hr ejbing-inflr ument s , &C. 37,

98-

Tkrukes, how to bring them up, ffe. 359
3

e r.

‘Thyme, when to fow it, <oV. Page 492

Tongue, the dillempered growth and fwelling of
it in oxen 269

Trees, of plantations of them in Gaul for fup-
porting vines 235

- different forts, (ffc, 57°

— — of the different forts of pomiferous trees

24 1

- of other forts for fupporting vines 588

- of the proper time for ingrafting fruit-

trees, &c. 495

Trenches, for planting apple and pear-trees 591

- - for vine-plants, and of their depth,

& c. 1 60

Trenching the ground, and of the depth and
width of the trenches, and of an inilrument
for meafuring them 13,144

Turnep, when to fow it 7 8

— . of its Culture, &c. 495

■ ■■— how to pickle turneps 566

V.

VEffels , of different forts, for pickles, con-
ferves, and other provifions 509

Vetches, when to fow them, &c. 82

Vindemiator, the Vintager, a Conftellation,

, when rifes 465

Vinegar , how to make it of fiat wine 5 1 1

- - how to make it of figs 521

- how to make it of fquills 530

Vines, their feveral forts, and of the climate
and foil proper for them 104, et feq,

- — of the feveral ways of planting them in
Italy, and in the provinces 1 47

• . of the price of fhoots or cuttings of vines

122

— — of the great advantages of planting them

"7

- - how many kinds ought to be planted, & c.

>55 yet feq.

- m — after what manner they ought to be cul¬
tivated, and of their feveral forts 567, 577
— — of propagating them 5 8 1

- — of ingrafting them 582

— — of ablaqueating and pampinating them

58 S, ^ feq.

Vine-dreffer, what things he ought to avoid and
purfue, in a well-conftituted vineyard 185,

194

Vine-fretters, how to prevent their hurting the
vines 587

Vineyards, how to lay them out, and of things
to be obferved in planting them 151, et feq.

Vineyards,

INDEX.

Vineyards, of the price of land proper for them

Page 120

- - directions about planting them 123

— - conftant Culture nccefl'ary to keep

them from decaying 163

— — . how they are to be pampinated,

propped, recruited, Is'c. 166, 172, et fey.

— - - of binding and pruning young vine¬

yards, and reftoring fuch as are old, and of
pruning them alfo 1 80, et feq .

— — ■ - provincial vineyards, their feveral

forts, and of the quality of the ground proper
for them 219 , et feq.

... — .. 0f putting them upon frames, &c.

>9.3 »«*/%•

— — - of the feveral forts of vineyards 576

— — - - and how to make them fruitful, and

of other things necefi'ary to be done in them

576 to 586

Vintage, of fuch things as are to be prepared
for it 522

Violet , when to plant it 600

w. .v \

WAter, directions Concerning it 2S

— and how to prepare falt-water for
preferving wine 5 29

Wax-bees , how to make it 415

Weeding of corn, <Jc. when to be done 86

Well, for a garden, the molt proper time for
digging it 486

Whale , a Conftellation 476

Wheat, its different forts 60

Wife, the Bailiff's wife, and houfckeeper, her
office, character, qualifications, bufinefs, Isfe,

500, et feq.

Willow groves, how to plant them, (Ac. 202
Willow-tree, of the time and manner of plant¬
ing it _ 599

Winds, called Ornithian, at what time they
begin to blow 464

- forerunner- or harbinger winds, when

they begin to blow 473

- - etefian, or anniverfary winds, when

they begin to blow 474

Wine , feveral compofitions for preferving it

5 24, etfeq.

- remedies for four wine 534

— — - how to make fweet wine 533

• of diverfe preferves for wine - ^3 5

. of curing wine, and of remedies for that

which is beginning to decay 5.36

■■■ of horehound-wine 536

— — - and of remedies it} cafe any living crea¬
ture fall into it, and of fquil-wine 536

— of wormwood hylfop -, fouthernwood
myrtle-, and other forts of wine 538, et feq .

- how to make wine of grapes dried in the

Sun 541

— — how to make a fmall thin wine 542
-- - how to make honey-wine 541

Wives, their character in former and later
days 502

z.

r J Ephyr, what kind of wind 42,5

0 MISS A.

Lib. cap. I. page 207. the title omitted,
<*iz.. After what manner you ought to meafure
the given forms of land.

Lib. 7. cap. I. page 303. the title omitted;
•viz. Chap. I. Of the fmall he-afs.

Page 571. the title omitted, viz. Chap. L
Of a nurfery of vines.

ERRATA.

Page 16. Line 42. add commends him.
ib. 1. 43. read places.

1 30. 1. 8. read kinds. '

137^ 1. 36. read whether.

238. 1. 11. add are.

253. laft line, read pound-weight .
292. 1. 30. dele comma after and.
318. 1. 3. inflead of for read thus.
339. 1. 28. after word add is.

347. 1. 25. dele s in Fowls.

382. 1. 11. for wherein read when.

Page 382. 1. 35. for thofe read thefe.
412. 1. 18. for make read made.
423. J. 25. adde s to vomit.

• 506. 1, 13. for make read made.
527. 1. 23. for thofe read thefe.
554. 1. 6. for in read by.

572. 1. 16. for county read country.

573. 1. 4. for when read where.
590. laft line, add year.

597. 1. 18. read round incifion.

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